Taoism

Travels to the West of Qiu Chang Chun

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Qiu Chang Chun Xi You Ji 长春真人西游记 was a record
of journey of Taoist monk Qiu Chuji from Shandong China through central Asia to Persia to
present himself before Genghis Khan.

In 1220, on the invitation of Genghis Khan with a golden tablet, Qiu Chuji left his home town Shangdong with eighteen disciples, and travelled through Peking and travelled north. In June, they reached Te Hing and stayed in the Lung Yun Taosit Temple from summer to end of winter. On February of 1221, they resumed their journey. When asked by friends and
disciples when to expect the master to return, the master answered "In three years, three years". On February 3, they reached Chui Ping Kou, they saw Tai Hang Mountain to their
south. Travelled north then north east, they arrived at Kai Li Po salt lake.

Lake Buyur, Hulunbuir, Ulan Bator, , Altay Mountains, Bishbulik, Dzungaria, Samarkand and arrived at Hindu Kush of Afganistan in 1222 and presented himself before Genghis Khan.

The journey to Persia and back took three years, from 1220 to 1224. The record was
written by a disciple Li Zhichang , who accompanied Qiu on the journey. The Travels consisted of two parts, the first part described the details of the travel to the west and back; the second part contains advices from Qiu Chuji to Genghis Khan.

Chang Chun Xi You Ji was published by another disciple Sun Xi, with a preface dated 1228. Xi You Ji was included in Dao Zang , but was forgotten for more than five hundred years. Until 1795 Qing dynasty scholars
Qian Daxin and Duan Yucai rediscovered it from Dao Zang in the Xuan Miao Taoist Temple in Suzhou,then Qian Daxin hand copied this work and distributed it.

Translations

Chang Chun Xi You Ji was first translated into Russian by the Archimandrite of Russian Orthodox Church Pekin Eccles Mission Palladius Kafarov in 1866.

In 1867 M. Pauthier translated an abridged version of Xi You Ji from Hai Guo Tu Zhi

1888, Dr. Emil Bretschneider, a Baltic German physician posted to the Russian Legation in Pekin, published his English translation of Chang Chun Xi you Ji.

Lingbao School

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The Lingbao School , also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School of Numinous Treasure, was an important school that emerged in China in between the and the Liu Song Dynasty in the early fifth century CE. It lasted for about two hundred years until it was absorbed into the Shangqing School during the Tang Dynasty. The Lingbao School is a synthesis of religious ideas that is based on Shangqing texts, the rituals of the , and Buddhist practices.

The beliefs of the Lingbao school were based on the Buddhist concept of reincarnation. The school's cosmology was also influenced by Buddhism, but still maintained many Daoist beliefs, including the idea that the world emerged from the Single Breath, and that an apocalypse would occur that only a limited few could avoid through faith. Its pantheon is similar to Shangqing and Celestial Master Daoism, with one of its most important gods being the form of Laozi. Alongside Laozi, other minor gods existed, some of whom were in charge of preparing spirits for reincarnation. Although reincarnation was an important concept in the Lingbao School, the earlier Daoist belief in attaining immortality remained. Likewise, Lingbao ritual was initially very similar to individual Celestial Master ritual, but went through a transformation that put more emphasis on collective rites. The most important scripture in the Lingbao School is known as the ''Five Talismans'' , which was compiled by Ge Chaofu and based on Ge Hong's earlier alchemical works.

History

The Lingbao School began in around 400 CE when the Lingbao scriptures were revealed to Ge Chaofu, the grand-nephew of Ge Hong. Ge Chaofu did not claim to have had the scriptures revealed to him directly from the spirits, but rather from a line of transmission going back to Ge Hong's great-uncle, Ge Xuan . Ge Chaofu transmitted the scriptures to two of his disciples, and the scriptures gained quick and immense popularity. In 471, Lu Xiujing compiled a catalogue of all the Lingbao texts, and also was responsible for reorganizing and standardizing Lingbao ritual. This organization of texts and ritual provided a solid foundation upon which the Lingbao School prospered in the subsequent centuries. Under the Tang Dynasty, the Shangqing School, better integrated with the aristocracy, was more influential in court. The Shangqing School, however, borrowed many Lingbao practices, thus further integrating the two schools. While the Lingbao school did not survive as a distinct entity, its ritual apparatus did, and it forms the basis for present-day Daoist ritual practice.

Beliefs

Rebirth

Many Lingbao beliefs are borrowed from Buddhism. These borrowings, however, were often clumsy and betrayed the Lingbao Daoists' poor understanding of Buddhism. The names of the many different deities and heavens were often given titles copied from Buddhism that were based on phonetic transcriptions of Sanskrit. Many Buddhist terms were borrowed, but given completely different meanings. The only significant borrowing from Buddhism was the idea of reincarnation.

Both Buddhism and the Lingbao School share the idea of the . These were rebirth into , as a , as an , as a or as a . After death, the adept's body would be alchemically refined in the Palace of Supreme Darkness located in the north, and in the aptly named Southern Palace in the south. The transmutation of the body consisted of two steps; the yin components of the person were refined in the Palace of Supreme Darkness, followed by the yang components in the Southern Palace. The Lingbao concept of rebirth is a sinicization of Buddhism, mixing traditional Chinese concepts with newly arrived Buddhist ideas.

Cosmology

Lingbao cosmology borrows heavily from Buddhism. Unlike previous cosmological systems which were divided into anywhere from four to nine regions, Lingbao cosmology supposed that there were ten regions, an idea borrowed from Buddhism. In addition to the cosmological regions, there were 32 heavens divided into four sectors, each with eight heavens that were placed horizontally on the periphery of the celestial disc. Like Buddhism, the heavens were divided into 'three worlds,' the worlds of desire, form and formlessness.

Certain traditionally Daoist ideas were retained in Lingbao cosmology, such as the idea that the world originated from the Single Breath, and then was divided into heaven and earth. However, the Single Breath is subdivided into three breaths that corresponds to three deities, the lords of the Celestial Treasure, of the Sacred Treasure and of the Divine Treasure. During the subsequent three cosmic eras in the three Daoist heavens, these three lords introduced the teachings of the ''Dadong'' , the ''Dongxuan'' and of the ''Dongshen'' . These three teachings form the basis for the later classification of texts in the Daozang.

notions that appeared in Shangqing Daoism were developed fully by Lingbao Daoists. Lingbao cosmology supposed that time was divided into cosmic cycles that were correlated with the . At the end of a cosmic era, the emperor of the colour that was associated with that era would descend onto earth and reveal a teaching that would save a fixed number of people from death. There were two types of cosmic eras, short ones that were characterized by an excess of Yin energy, and long ones that were characterized by an excess of Yang energy. At the end of a short era, the moon would produce a flood that eroded the mountains, caused the Nine Breaths of the universe to be renewed and the ten thousand emperors to change their ranking. At the end of a long era evil creatures were unleashed, heaven and earth were turned upside down, and metals and stones melted together. The people who followed the correct teaching revealed by the emperor would be gathered up by the Queen Mother of the West and transported to a 'land of bliss' that would not be affected by the apocalypse.

Pantheon

In addition to borrowing deities from the Celestial Masters and the Shangqing School, Lingbao also developed its own gods. The supreme god of Lingbao Daoists is known as the ''Yuanshi Tianzun'' or ''The Celestial Worthy of the Original Beginning,'' who played a similar role to the deified Laozi in the . According to the scriptures, this god went through a series of kalpa cycles that were given names similar to dynastic names, until emerging at the beginning of the ''Kaihuang'' period. The next most important god was ''Laojun,'' the deified form of Laozi, who was the Celestial Worthy's chief disciple. Below these two main gods in the celestial hierarchy were those deities associated with the Southern Palace, which was where spirits went after to death prepare for rebirth. The head of this group of gods was known as the Perfected of the Southern Extremities. Beneath him was the Director of the Equerry, who was in charge of the life records of the spirits, and Lord Han, who controlled Fengdu, the city of the dead. Below these principle gods in the Lingbao hierarchy, were other deities such as the ''Five Old Men,'' the ''Dragon Kings'' and the ''Demon Kings''.

Deities were not only present in the heavens, but also in the human body itself. These deities, with names such as the Director of Destiny and Peach Vigor, were responsible for maintaining the body's , guarding the registers of life and regulating the souls. Normally these deities resided in the heavens, but they could be activated by scriptural recitations in order to descend into the body.

Practices

Immortality techniques

Despite a belief in reincarnation, the Lingbao School maintained the traditional Daoist idea that certain techniques could allow an adherent to achieve immortality. One technique was to ingest the essence of the sun and the moon. This involved exposing oneself to the planets at certain times of the month, and then with one's eyes closed, visualizing their essence coagulating and entering the body. Once in the body, the sun's essence was matched to the heart and visualized as being red, while the moon's was matched with the kidney's and seen as black. Besides interior meditation practices, immortality could also be achieved through the ingestion of potions or the ingestion of .

Rituals

Early Lingbao ritual was mostly done on an individual basis, and was done either in a meditation chamber, or the courtyard of a house. These practitioners were not professional priests, but rather 'students of the Dao'. Later on, as the Lingbao movement developed religious institutions and an established clergy, ritual practice became more of a communal rite.

Lingbao ritual shares a great deal with ritual in other Daoist traditions. Like other traditions, Lingbao rituals had a theatrical quality, that involved accompanying music, dances and chants. Lingbao Daoism also shared the multidimensional aspect of Daoist ritual, meaning that it was carried on at several different levels simultaneously. For example, while the external ritual was being performed, the priest would repeat the ritual within himself through interior meditation. In addition, rituals always involved three levels: heaven, earth and man.

There are three categories of ritual in Lingbao Daoism. The first type is known as the heavenly Golden Register of Rituals, and is carried out to prevent natural disasters. During the Tang Dynasty, this ritual was carried out in honour of the imperial family, but later it could be performed by anyone. The earthly Yellow Register ritual was performed in order to ensure the dead was at rest. The final type of ritual, which has not survived, was the human Jade Register, which was performed in order to ensure the salvation of mankind. Today, the Golden Register has assumed the role of the Jade register and in addition to preventing bad weather, also ensures salvation.

Canon

Lingbao scriptures arose as a direct result of the success of earlier Shangqing texts. Lingbao scriptures are all based on a text known as the ''Text of the Five Talismans'' , which was compiled by Ge Chaofu between 397 and 402 and borrowed from the work of Ge Hong, his great uncle. Being the most ancient Lingbao text, the ''Five Talismans'' provided the framework of the remainder of the Lingbao canon, which was based on the . Because all Lingbao texts descended from the ''Five Talismans'', it was believed that all the other Lingbao texts had been revealed to Ge Xuan, who was the believed to be the original owner of the ''Five Talismans''. Ge Xuan is purported to have transmitted the Lingbao texts first to a disciple Zheng Siyuan, who then transmitted it to Ge's grand-nephew Ge Hong , who is well-known for his alchemical innovations. The claim that the Lingbao texts derive from Ge Xuan, however, was likely a way of legitimizing them through the exaggeration of their antiquity. In reality, they were likely assembled by Ge Chaofu himself. Within a few years of the texts' dissemination, they had become extremely popular.

The canon itself is a mix of previous Daoist traditions, mixing features from the Shangqing School and the Celestial Masters, along with other ancient texts and even some Buddhist ideas. The two most important texts of the canon besides the ''Wufujing'' are the ''Red Book of Five Writings'' and the ''Scripture of Upper Chapters on Limitless Salvation'' . According to Lu Xiujing, who edited the Lingbao Canon, there were a total of 34 texts in the canon, of which three have been lost.

List of Celestial Masters

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This is a list of the Celestial Masters, leaders of Zhengyi Dao and Wudoumi Dao.

List of Japanese researchers in Daoism

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This is a list of Japanese researchers in Daoism:

*Fukui Fumimasa
*Fukui Koujun
*Fukunaga Mitsuji
*Girano Yoshitaro
*Hachiya Kunio
*Igarashi Toshitaka
*Kanaya Osamu
*Kimura Eichi
*Koda Rohan
*Kubo Noritada
*Maruyama Hiroshi
*Miyakawa Hisayuki
*Mugitani Kunio
*Ofuchi Ninji
*Oyanagi Shigeta
*Sakai Tadao
*Sawada Mizuho
*Tachibana Shiraki
*Takeuchi Yoshio
*Tsuda Sokichi
*Yoshioka Yoshitoyo

List of Lingbao Texts

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This is a list of all works contained in the Canon as listed by Lu Xiujing in his catalogue of 437 CE.

Liu Zi Jue

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The Six Healing Sounds or Liu Zi Jue is one of the common forms of Chinese qigong, and involves the coordination of movement and breathing patterns with specific sounds.

History

The Term Liu Zi Jue first appears in a book called ''On Caring for the Health of the Mind and Prolonging the Life Span'' written by Tao Hongjing of the Southern and Northern Dynasties . A leading figure of the Maoshan School of Taoism, Tao was renowned for his profound knowledge of Traditional Chinese Medicine. ''"One has only one way for inhalation but six for exhalation"'' he writes in the book.

Zou Pu'an of the Song Dynasty was a major contributor in terms of theroy and practice to the transmission of the exercise through his book ''The Supreme Knack for Health Preservation - Six-Character Approach to Breathing Exercises''.

No body movements accompanied the Liu Zi Jue exercises until the Ming Dynasty when Hu Wenhuan and Gao Lian wrote books on the subject. For instance they both included in their books the summary of Liu Zi Jue for despelling diseases and prolonging the life span, which combines controlled breathing with physical exercises.

There are a number of schools of exercises which incorporate elements of Liu Zi Jue, including Yi Jin Jing, and Da Yan Gong, but the sounds are uses as an aid to physical exercises in these dynamic Qigong which is different from Liu Zi Jue. An authoritative work on the subject is Ma Litang's ''Liu Zi Jue Health and Fitness Exercises'' for clinical application.

The theoretical basis of the Liu Zi Jue exercises is in line with the ancient theories intrinsic to Traditional Chinese Medicine of the Five Elements and the Five Solid Viscera. They tend to be on common ground on such issues as mouth forms and pronunciation methods, and the direction of body movements and mind follow the inner circulation law of the meridians.

The sounds/sections

* XU - Exercise/Sound
* HE - Exercise/Sound
* HU - Exercise/Sound
* SI - Exercise/Sound
* CHUI - Exercise/Sound
* XI - Exercise/Sound

Liuhebafa

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''Note: The art may be spelled in different ways, for example:
Liu He Ba Fa ,
Lok Hap Baat Faat ,
and abbreviated as: LHBF''

Liuhebafa 六合八法拳 , also called "Xinyi Liuhebafa", and often referred to as "Water Boxing" 水拳 due to its principles, is a form of Chinese martial arts. The legendary Taoist sage Chen Tuan is credited with its origin and development. He was associated with the Hua Shan Taoist Monastery on Mount Hua in Shaanxi Province.

History

The Liuhebafa form "Zhu Ji 築基" was taught in the late nineteen thirties in Shanghai and Nanjing by Wu Yi Hui . It is said he had learned the art from three teachers: Yan Guo Xing, Chen Guang Di, and Chen He Lu.

Many of Wu Yi Hui's students had martial arts backgrounds and unfortunately modified the form to merge it with their own knowledge. This is one of several explanations for its similarities with other martial arts such as Xingyiquan, Baguazhang ,Taijiquan and Yiquan.

Six Harmonies and Eight Methods

The Six Harmonies and the Eight Methods are the guiding principles of LiuHebafa that give it its name.

Six Harmonies

# 體合于心 Body and Mind Combine
# 心合于意 Mind and Intent Combine
# 意合于氣 Intent and Chi Combine
# 氣合于神 Chi and Spirit Combine
# 神合于動 Spirit and Movement Combine
# 動合于空 Movement and Emptiness Combine

Eight Methods

# 氣 Chi
# 骨 Bone
# 形 Shape
# 隨 Follow
# 提 Rise
# 還 Return
# 勒 Retain
# 伏 Conceal

Forms

The system of Liuhebafa, called Huayue Xiyi Men, as taught by Wu Yi Hui contains several forms , including bare hand and weapons forms as well as Qigong methods.

Hand forms

* 三盤十二勢 San Pan Shi Er Shi - 3 Divisions 12 Spirits
* 築基 Zhu Ji - Discovering the Foundations
* 呂紅八勢 Lu Hong Ba Shi - 8 Essences of Lu Hong's Fist
* 龍虎戰 Long Hu Zhan - Dragon and Tiger Fighting
* 螫龍遊 Zhe Long You - Coiled Dragon Swimming
* 螫龍拳 Zhe Long Chuan - Coiled Dragon Fist

Weapon forms

* 心意棍 Xin Yi Guan - Heart of Intent Staff
* 露花刀 Lu Hua Dao - Dew Mist Broadsword
* 玉川劍 Yu Chuan Jian - Jade River Straightsword

Internal exercises

* 韋佗功 Wei Tuo Gong - Standing meditation
* 太陽功 Tai Yang Gong - Solar Meditation
* 一杰混元功 Yi Jie Hun Yuan Gong - Primary Definitive Force
* 先天座 Xian Tian Zhuo - Pre-Heaven Meditation
* 三盤推手 San Pan Tui Shou - 3 Divisions Push Hands

''source: information and translations provided by ""''

Ma Gu

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Ma Gu is a legendary Taoist associated with the elixir of life, and symbolic protector of females in Chinese mythology. Stories in Chinese literature describe Ma Gu as a beautiful young woman with long birdlike fingernails, while early myths associate her with caves. ''Ma Gu xian shou'' is a popular motif in Chinese art.

The name

Ma Gu's name compounds two common words. ''Ma'' originally meant "hemp, ''Cannabis sativa''" ; but has extended meanings of "sesame" , " numbed; tingling" , "pockmarked; pitted" , and an uncommon Chinese surname. ''Gu'' is primarily used in female Chinese kinship terms for "father's sister" , "husband's sister" , and "husband's mother" ; ''gu'' can also mean "young woman, maiden, maid" , and religious titles . Accurately translating Ma Gu into English is problematic, depending upon whether she was a "maid", "priestess", or "goddess" of "hemp", "marijuana", or something else. Victor H. Mair proposed that Chinese ''wu'' , pronounced *''myag'' in Old Chinese, was a loanword from Old Persian *''magu?'' "magician; magi", hypothetically comparable with Ma Gu.

Chinese Ma Gu is called Mago in and Mako in . Mago is a cosmogonic goddess in . Hwang calls her "the Great Goddess" and proposes "Magoism, the archaic gynocentric cultural matrix of East Asia, which derives from the worship of Mago as creatress, progenitress, and sovereign." According to the Budoji, Korean mytho-history began with the "Era of Mago." Japanese Mako is usually a literary reference to the Chinese story about Ma Gu's long fingernails, for instance, ''Mako sōyō'' metaphorically means "things going like one imagined".

Cultic origins

While Ma Gu folktales are familiar in East Asia, the sociologist Wolfram Eberhard was the first Western scholar to analyze them. He categorized Ma Gu under a cultural chain of love songs and festivals. Based on references in Chinese texts, Eberhard proposed two centers for the Ma Gu cult, in the present-day provinces of Jiangxi and Hubei. Evidence for an "original cultic center" near Nancheng county in southwestern Jiangxi includes several place names, including two mountains. The famous Ma Gu Shan is located in Nancheng, and Taoists regard its Danxia Dong as the 28th of 36 sacred ''dongtian'' . The famous Tang Dynasty Daoist calligrapher Yan Zhengqing visited Mt Magu and inscribed the ''Magu Shan Xiantan Ji'' . A second Ma Gu Mountain is located in Jianchang county . Ma Gu Wine is made in Jianchang and nearby Linchuan. In addition, Ma Gu is an alternate name for Hua Gu Mountain in Xuancheng county of Anhui. Evidence for a secondary area for the Ma Gu cult in Hubei includes the Song dynasty temple near Hankou, along with the Ma Gu Temple on . Several early folktales from Sichuan province associate Ma Gu with caves and one describes a shaman who invoked her. Regarding the traditions that she was born in Jiangxi and became an immortal ''xian'' in Shandong, Eberhard says.
This ascent to heaven, typical of Taoists, connects her with the immortal saints, and indeed she is regarded as a symbol of long life and rebirth, and therefore in the Chinese drama, appears a good omen during birthday celebrations.

Early descriptions

Campany provides details of Ma Gu mythology in his annotated translation of Ge Hong's ''Shenxian Zhuan'' . He compares four Chinese textual variations of Ma Gu stories.

The ''Shenxian Zhuan'' Daoist hagiography of Wang Yuan and Ma Gu has the longest early descriptions of her. Wang was supposedly a Confucianist scholar who quit his official post during the reign of Emperor Huan of Han and went into the mountains to became a Daoist ''xian''. Later, while traveling in Wu , Wang met Cai Jing 蔡經, whose physiognomy indicated he was destined to become an immortal, and taught him the basic techniques. After Cai had been gone for "over a decade", he suddenly returned home, looking like a young man, announced that Lord Wang would visit on the "seventh day of the seventh month" , and ordered preparations for a feast. After Wang and his celestial entourage arrived on the auspicious "double-seven" day, he invited Ma Gu to join their celebration because "It has been a long time since you were in the human realm." She replied by invisible messenger. "Maid Ma bows and says: 'Without our realizing it, more than five hundred years have passed since our last meeting!'" After apologizing that she would be delayed owing to an appointment at Penglai Mountain , Ma arrived four hours later.
She appeared to be a handsome woman of eighteen or nineteen; her hair was done up, and several loose strands hung down to her waist. Her gown had a pattern of colors, but it was not woven; it shimmered, dazzling the eyes, and was indescribable – it was not of this world. She approached and bowed to Wang, who bade her rise. When they were both seated, they called for the travelling canteen. The servings were piled up on gold platters and in jade cups without limit. There were rare delicacies, many of them made from flowers and fruits, and their fragrance permeated the air inside and out. When the meat was sliced and served, it resembled broiled ''mo'', and was announced as ''kirin'' meat.

Maid Ma declared: "Since I entered your service, I have seen the Eastern Sea turn to mulberry fields three times. As one proceeded across to Penglai, the water came only up to one's waist. I wonder whether it will turn to dry land once again." Wang answered with a sigh, "Oh, the sages all say that the Eastern Sea will once again become blowing dust."
When Ma Gu was introduced to the women in Cai's family, she transformed some rice into pearls as a trick to avoid the unclean influences of a recent childbirth. Then Wang presented Cai's family with a strong liquor from "the celestial kitchens", and warned that it was "unfit for drinking by ordinary people". Even after diluting the liquor with water, everyone became intoxicated and wanted more.
Maid Ma's fingernails resembled bird claws. When Cai Jing noticed them, he thought to himself, "My back itches. Wouldn't it be great if I could get her to scratch my back with those nails?" Now, Wang Yuan knew what Cai was saying in his heart, so he ordered him bound and whipped, chiding, "Maid Ma is a divine personage. How dare you think that her nails could scratch your back!" The whip lashing Cai's back was the only thing visible; no one was seen wielding it. Wang added, "My whippings are not given without cause."
Some later versions of this legend say Ma was Wang's sister. The poet Li Bai immortalized two Classical Chinese expressions from this story. ''Ma Gu saobei'' refers to her extraordinary fingernails. ''Canghai sangtian'' means "great changes over the course of time"; Joseph Needham says early Daoists observed seashells in mountainous rocks and recognized the vast scale of geologic transformations.

The ''Lieyi zhuan'' , attributed to Cao Pi has three stories about Wang Fangping.
The third gives a version of the incident of Cai Jing's inappropriate fantasy concerning Maid Ma and her luxuriant four-inch nails. Here, Cai Jing's home is located in Dongyang; he is not whipped but rather flung to the ground, his eyes running blood; and Maid Ma herself, identified as "a divine transcendent" , is the one who reads his thoughts and does the punishing.
Kohn's translation includes a woodblock from the illustrated ''Zengxiang Liexian zhuan''.

The ''Yiyuan'' , by Liu Jingshu , records a story about Mei Gu or Ma Gu, and suggests her cult originated during the Qin Dynasty .
During Qin times, there was a Temple to Maid Mei 梅 – or, as one version has it, Maid Ma – beside a lake. When alive, she had possessed arts of the Dao. She could walk on water in her shoes. Later she violated the laws of the Dao, and her husband, out of anger, murdered her and dumped her body in the lake. Following the current, it floated on the waves until it reached the the temple. A subordinate shaman directed that she be encoffined but not immediately buried. Very soon a square, lacquered coffin appeared in the shrine hall. , at the end and beginning of each lunar month, people there could make out through the fog an indistinct figure, wearing shoes. Fishing and hunting were prohibited in the area of the temple, and violators would always become lost or drown. Shamans said that it was because the Maid had suffered a painful death and hater to see other beings cruelly killed.
Campany reads this legend to describe founding a temple, probably on Lake Gongting, and translates these "shaman" and "shrine" references in the future tense. Compare the present tense translation of Miyakawa who interprets her body floating to an existing temple.

The ''Qi Xie ji'' associates Ma Gu with snakes. It describes her as a commoner from Fuyang, Zhejiang, rather than a Daoist transcendent, who loved raw meat hash. She captured a strange beast resembling a sea turtle and a serpent, and ate it with her companion Hua Ben . When Ma started choking, Hau could see a snake flicking its tongue inside her mouth. She later enjoyed a meal at Hua's house, but upon learning that they had eaten snake meat, she vomited blood and died. Campany concludes.
This story hints at an even older stratum of legend behind the Maid Ma cult: like other territorial gods known to Chinese religious history, she may have begun as a theriomorphic deity who gradually metamorphosed into a human being and finally – the process culminating in Ge Hong's ''Traditions'' narrative – into a full-fledged transcendent. Seen in this light, several details of the ''Traditions'' hagiography might be read as betraying these chthonic origins. Among these are Maid Ma's long nails, the featuring of meat dishes among the fantastic foods served by the travelling canteen, and the scene describing the "summoning" of Maid Ma, which is reminiscent of shamanic invocations of deities to attend spirit-writing sessions.

Hemp goddess?

Ma Gu can be literally translated "Hemp Goddess/Priestess". The Way of Infinite Harmony is a modern Taoist sect that worships Ma Gu and espouses the spiritual use of cannabis.

Hellmut Wilhelm's book review of Eberhard's original German book suggested that Ma Gu was associated with cannabis. Eberhard dismissed this hypothesis in the English version.
I have no indication that the goddess ever was a goddess of the hemp plant as H. Wilhelm surmised . She often wears aboriginal attire, a dress with a collar made of leaves, but not of hemp, which only sometimes has developed, according to a late fashion into a cape of cloth.

Campany mentions the Chinese use of ''ma'' "hemp" fibers as a weaving material.
I know of no attempt to explain the name Ma gu .
The cultural and linguistic origins of Ma Gu remain an open question.

Tiangang 36 methods

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Tiangang 36 methods were the thirty-six methods to manipulate the heaven and the environment were different skills decreed by heaven and in line with the nature and potential of Wuji, as explained by the ''Lingbao Tianchun'' in a Taoist guidance book called ''Tiantang Yiuchi''. These gifts were once practised by authorized agents or Taoist daoshi who would come to aid those in need or in oppression.

Many feats in the Fengshen Yanyi involved the use of Tiangang 36 methods or those of Disha 72 ways.

The Tiangang 36 methods skills are listed as follow:

1. 斡旋造化 : To negotiate creation.

2. 顛倒陰陽 : To reverse yin and yang.

3. 移星換斗 : To move planets and star.

4. 迴天返日 : To summon day and the sun.

5. 喚雨呼風 : To hail rain and summon the wind.

6. 振山撼地 : To shake mountain and thunder the earth.

7. 駕霧騰雲 : To ride on mist and jump on clouds.

8. 劃江成陸 : To transform river to earth.

9. 縱地金光 : Unclear *

10. 翻江攪海 : To turn river and stir the ocean.

11. 指地成鋼 : To transform earth into steel.

12. 五行大遁 : Exit methods based on Wu xing.

13. 六甲奇門 : Escape-doors from Liujia.

14. 逆知未來 : To foresee the future.

15. 鞭山移石 : To move mountain and rocks.

16. 起死回生 : To bring life to the dead.

17. 飛身托跡 : To fly *

18. 九息服? : Unclear*

19. 導出元陽 : To leave one’s body as a yuanyang.

20. 降龍伏虎 : To tame dragon and tiger.

21. 補天浴日 : To mend the sky.

22. 推山填海 : To move mountain and fill the sea.

23. 指石成金 : To transform stone to gold, i.e. alchemy.

24. 正立無影 : To hide one’s shadow.

25. 胎化易形 : To masquerade one’s look*.

26. 大小如意 : To change one’s size or stature.

27. 花開頃刻 : To make flower blosom.

28. 遊神禦氣 : Unclear*

29. 隔垣洞見 : To see from afar.

30. 迴風返火 : To summon wind and fire.

31. 掌握五雷 : To summon thunder.

32. 潛淵縮地 : To escape in abyss or earth*

33. 飛砂走石 : To move sand and rock*

34. 挾山超海 : To skip over mountain and sea.

35. 撒豆成兵 : To make soldiers from beans.

36. 釘頭七箭 : Unclear*

Text Reference

In chapter six Lingbao Tianchun explained to the adherent on the Tiangang 36 methods as follow: “…. 今引三十六天罡法古今相同實證如下﹕
一、古人有顛倒陰陽之法；今人有電燈出現，黑夜可以變為白晝，如夜市熱鬧，由天反而曦微也。
二、古人有駕霧騰雲之法；今人有乘坐飛機，穿梭雲霧之間，此則是科技之變法也。
三、古人有移星換斗之法；今日可以換心換腎，而且用狗與猴之五臟與人互換，此即移星換斗之法也。
四、古人有五行大遁之法，五遁即金木水火土之遁法也；今者水遁有潛水艇之出現，金者有噴射機之發明，土者用地洞之滲透，五遁已成三遁也。
五、古人有逆知未來之法；今人有雷達之發明，敵機、敵艦將來可以偵測而知；颱風暴雨之來可以預測而知，氣象變化，科學可以卜知也。
六、古人有飛身托跡之法﹔今人有飛機、電車之坐，頃刻可以飛身托跡他處也。
七、古人有推山填海之法﹔今人可用炸藥或開山機、推土機，將山土推入海中也。
八、古人有降龍伏虎之法﹔今人用電鞭亦可馴龍伏虎也。
九、古人有掌握五雷之法﹔今人可以以電腦控制。手指一按，引爆炸彈，如五雷之轟隆震耳也。
十、古人有隔垣洞見之法﹔今人有電視之轉播，千里之影像，眼前可見，此即﹁千里眼﹂也。有電話可通，萬里之聲耳邊可聞，此即﹁順風耳﹂也。
十一、古人有撒豆成兵之法﹔今日製造炸彈，一粒如豆，一旦爆炸開花，則如豆粒之散開，殺力無窮也。以上乃是三十六天罡法古今之略述。

Tian

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Tian is one of the oldest Chinese terms for the cosmos and a key concept in Chinese mythology, , and . During the Shang Dynasty the Chinese called god ''Shangdi'' or ''Di'' , and during the Zhou Dynasty ''Tian'' "heaven; god" became synonymous with ''Shangdi''.

In the Chinese philosophical systems of Taoism and Confucianism, ''Tian'' is often translated as "Heaven" and is mentioned in relationship to its complementary aspect of ''Di'' , which is most often translated as "Earth". These two aspects of Daoist cosmology are representative of the dualistic nature of Daoism. They are thought to maintain the two poles of the Three Realms of reality, with the middle realm occupied by Humanity .

Characters

''Tian'''s modern Chinese character 天 combines ''da'' "great; large" and ''yi'' "one", but some of the original characters in Shang oracle bone script and Zhou bronzeware script anthropomorphically portray a large head on a great person . The oracle and bronze ideograms for ''da'' 大 depict a stick figure person with arms stretched out denoting "great; large". The oracle and bronze characters for ''tian'' 天 emphasize the cranium of this "great ", either with a square head , round or disk-shaped head , or head marked with one or two lines . Since Shang scribes cut oracle inscriptions on bone or shell, their characters often have straight lines where later bronze inscriptions have curved lines. Schuessler notes the bronze graphs for ''tian'' showing a person with a round head resemble those for ''ding'' "4th Celestial stem", and suggests "The anthropomorphic graph may or may not indicate that the original meaning was 'deity', rather than 'sky'."

Besides the usual 天, ''tian'' "heaven" has several graphic variants like 兲 and the Daoist coinage 靝 .

The simplified chinese version is slightly different from the traditional chinese version . The relative lengths of the two horizontal bars are different in the two cases.

Origins

The sinologist Herrlee Creel, who wrote a comprehensive study on "The Origin of the Deity T'ien" , gives this overview.
For three thousand years it has been believed that from time immemorial all Chinese revered T'ien 天, "Heaven," as the highest deity, and that this same deity was also known as Ti 帝 or Shang Ti 上帝. But the new materials that have become available in the present century, and especially the Shang inscriptions, make it evident that this was not the case. It appears rather that T'ien is not named at all in the Shang inscriptions, which instead refer with great frequency to Ti or Shang Ti. T'ien appears only with the Chou, and was apparently a Chou deity. After the conquest the Chou considered T'ien to be identical with the Shang deity Ti , much as the Romans identified the Greek Zeus with their Jupiter.
Creel refers to the historical shift in ancient Chinese names for "god"; from Shang oracles that frequently used ''di'' and ''shangdi'' and rarely used ''tian'' to Zhou bronzes and texts that used ''tian'' more frequently than its synonym ''shangdi''.

First, Creel analyzes all the ''tian'' and ''di'' occurrences meaning "god; gods" in Western Zhou era Chinese classic texts and bronze inscriptions. The '''' "Classic of Changes" has 2 ''tian'' and 1 ''di''; the ''Shi Jing'' "Classic of Poetry" has 140 ''tian'' and 43 ''di'' or ''shangdi''; and the authentic portions of the ''Shu Jing'' "Classic of Documents" have 116 ''tian'' and 25 ''di'' or ''shangdi''. His corpus of authenticated Western Zhou bronzes mention ''tian'' 91 times and ''di'' or ''shangdi'' only 4 times. Second, Creel contrasts the disparity between 175 occurrences of ''di'' or ''shangdi'' on Shang era oracle inscriptions with "at least" 26 occurrences of ''tian''. Upon examining these 26 oracle scripts that scholars have identified as ''tian'' 天 "heaven; god" , he rules out 8 cases in fragments where the contextual meaning is unclear. Of the remaining 18, Creel interprets 11 cases as graphic variants for ''da'' "great; large; big" , 3 as a place name, and 4 cases of oracles recording sacrifices ''yu tian'' 于天 "to/at Tian" (which could mean "to Heaven/God" or "at a place called Tian".

The ''Shu Jing'' chapter "''Tang Shi''" illustrates how early Zhou texts used ''tian'' "heaven; god" in contexts with ''shangdi'' "god". According to tradition, Tang of Shang assembled his subjects to overthrow King Jie of Xia, the infamous last ruler of the Xia Dynasty, but they were reluctant to attack.

Having established that ''Tian'' was not a deity of the Shang people, Creel proposes a hypothesis for how it originated. Both the Shang and Zhou peoples pictographically represented ''da'' 大 as "a large or great man". The Zhou subsequently added a head on him to denote ''tian'' 天 meaning "king, kings" . From "kings", ''tian'' was semantically extended to mean "dead kings; ancestral kings", who controlled "fate; providence", and ultimately a single omnipotent deity ''Tian'' "Heaven". In addition, ''tian'' named both "the heavens" and the visible "sky".

Meanings

The semantics of ''tian'' developed diachronically. The ''Hanyu dazidian'', an historical dictionary of Chinese characters, lists 17 meanings of ''tian'' 天, translated below.

# Human forehead; head, cranium. 人的額部; 腦袋.
# Anciently, to tattoo/brand the forehead as a kind of punishment. 古代一種在額頭上刺字的刑罰.
# The heavens, the sky, the firmament. 天空.
# Celestial bodies; celestial phenomena, meteorological phenomena. 天體; 天象.
# Nature, natural. A general reference to objective inevitability beyond human will. 自然. 泛指不以人意志為轉移的客觀必然性.
# Natural, innate; instinctive, inborn. 自然的; 天性的.
# Natural character/quality of a person or thing; natural instinct, inborn nature, disposition. 人或物的自然形質; 天性.
# A reference to a particular sky/space. 特指某一空間.
# Season; seasons. Like: winter; the three hot 10-day periods . 時令; 季節. 如: 冬天; 三伏天.
# Weather; climate. 天氣; 氣候.
# Day, time of one day and night, or especially the time from sunrise to sunset. Like: today; yesterday; busy all day; go fishing for three days and dry the nets for two . 一晝夜的時間, 或專指日出到日落的時間. 如: 今天; 昨天; 忙了一天; 三天打魚, 兩天曬網.
# God, heaven, celestial spirit, of the natural world. 天神, 上帝, 自然界的主宰者.
# Heaven, heavenly, a superstitious person's reference to the gods, Buddhas, or immortals; or to the worlds where they live. Like: go to heaven ; heavenly troops and heavenly generals ; heavenly goddesses scatter blossoms . 迷信的人指神佛仙人或他們生活的那個世界. 如: 歸天; 天兵天將; 天女散花.
# Anciently, the king, monarch, sovereign; also referring to elders in human relationships. 古代指君王; 也指人倫中的尊者.
# Object upon which one depends or relies. 所依存或依靠的對象.
# Dialect. A measure of land . 方言. 垧.
# A family name, surname. 姓.

The Chinese philosopher Feng Youlan differentiates five different meanings of ''tian'' in early Chinese writings:
A material or physical ''T'ien'' or sky, that is, the ''T'ien'' often spoken of in apposition to earth, as in the common phrase which refers to the physical universe as 'Heaven and Earth' .

A ruling or presiding ''T'ien'', that is, one such as is meant in the phrase, 'Imperial Heaven Supreme Emperor' , in which anthropomorphic ''T'ien'' and ''Ti'' are signified.

A fatalistic ''T'ien'', equivalent to the concept of Fate , a term applied to all those events in human life over which man himself has no control. This is the ''T'ien'' Mencius refers to when he says: "As to the accomplishment of a great deed, that is with ''T'ien''" .

A naturalistic ''T'ien'', that is, one equivalent to the English word Nature. This is the sort of ''T'ien'' described in the 'Discussion on ''T'ien''' in the .

An ethical ''T'ien'', that is, one having a moral principle and which is the highest primordial principle of the universe. This is the sort of ''T'ien'' which the refers to in its opening sentence when it says: "What ''T'ien'' confers is called his nature."

The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' enters the English loanword ''t'ien'' "Chinese thought: Heaven; the Deity." The earliest recorded usages for these spelling variants are: 1613 ''Tayn'', 1710 ''Tien'', 1747 ''Tyen'', and 1878 ''T'ien''.

Pronunciations

The modern Standard Mandarin pronunciation of 天 "sky, heaven; heavenly deity, god" is ''tiān'' in level first . The character is read as Standard Cantonese ''tin1''; ''thiN1'' or ''thian1''; ''yêu'' or ''thiên''; ''cheon'' or ''ch'?n'' ; and ''ten'' in ''On'yomi'' and ''ame'' or ''sora'' in '''' .

''Tiān'' 天 reconstructions in Middle Chinese include ''t'ien'' , ''t'i?n'' , ''t??n'' > ''t?ian'' , and ''then'' . Reconstructions in Old Chinese include *''t'ien'' , *''t'en'' , *''hlin'' , and *''th?n'' .

Etymologies

For the etymology of ''tian'', Schuessler says, "Because the deity Tiān came into prominence with the Zhou dynasty , a Central Asian origin has been suggested." He cites the word ''tengri'' "sky, heaven, heavenly deity" or the words ''tale?'' and ''tǎ-lya?'' "sky". Schuessler also suggests a likely connection between Chinese ''tiān'' 天, ''diān'' 巔 "summit, mountaintop", and ''diān'' 顛 "summit, top of the head, forehead", which have cognates such as ''ti?'' "sky".

Compounds

''Tian'' is the component in hundreds of Chinese . Some significant ones include:
*''tianming'' "divine mandate, God's will; fate, destiny; one's lifespan"
*''tianzi'' , an honorific designation for the "Emperor; Chinese sovereign"
*''tianxia'' "the world, earth; China"
*''tiandi'' "the world; the universe"

Three Pure Ones

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The Three Pure Ones also translated as
the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities, are the three highest Taoist deities.

They are:

*The '''' , also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Origin", or "The Universal Lord of the Primordial Beginning" .

*The ''Supreme Pure One'' , also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Divinities and Treasures", or "The Universal Lord of the Numinous Treasure" .

*The ''Grand Pure One'' , also known as "The Universally Honoured One of Tao and Virtues" or "The Universal Lord of the Way and its Virtue" or the "Grand Supreme Elder Lord" .

The Three Pure Ones represent the three divine natures of all living beings. They symbolize a kind of Taoist trinity: Tao begets One; one begets two; two begets three; three begets all things

In some Taoist belief systems, Hong-jun lao-zu is the common teacher of The Three Pure Ones.

According to , ''The Universally Honoured One of Tao and Virtues'' had manifested many various incarnations to teach living beings, and Laozi is one of his incarnations.

The Te of Piglet

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Ten years after his 1982 work ''The Tao of Pooh'', Benjamin Hoff was pressed to write a follow up of his Western inquiry into Taoism. He did this by writing his The Te of Piglet, published in 1992. It is still in print, with a paperback edition issued by Penguin USA in 1993.

Hoff explicitly states that this second book is not a sequel to his first book, but rather a companion. The book is based around two topics, the concept of '''', the Chinese word meaning 'power' or 'virtue' and , of the ''Winnie the Pooh'' books.

In his first book, he brought out the essential tenets and perspectives of Taoism, in terms accessible to . In his second book, he elucidates the Taoist concept of 'Virtue — of the small'; though, he also uses it as an opportunity to elaborate on his introduction to Taoism. It is written with many embedded stories from the A. A. Milne Winnie the Pooh books, both for entertainment and because they serve as tools for explaining Taoism.

In ''The Te of Piglet'', Piglet is shown to possess great power — a common interpretation of the word Te, which more commonly means Virtue — not only because he is small, but also because he has a great heart or, to use a Taoist term, . The book goes through the other characters — Tigger, , , Eeyore, and — to show the various aspects of that Taoism says gets in the way of living in harmony with the Tao.

The Tao of Pooh

2008-09-22T20:22:00.001-07:00

The Tao of Pooh is a book written by Benjamin Hoff. The book is an introduction to Taoism, using the fictional character of Winnie the Pooh. Hoff also wrote ''The Te of Piglet'', a companion book.

Hoff uses Winnie the Pooh and the other characters from A. A. Milne's stories to explain the basic principles of philosophical Taoism. Winnie the Pooh, for example, represents the principles of Wu Wei or Wei Wu Wei. The book also includes translated excerpts from various Taoist texts, from authors such as Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi.

The book was on the New York Times bestseller list for 49 weeks and is used as required reading in some college courses. Stephen Mitchell, an author and Taoist scholar, criticizes the book for having little to do with Taoism yet believes it may be of value to "people who aren't ready for Lao-tzu". It has also been criticized for its bias against other religions and thoughts.

Hoff wrote the book at night and on weekends while working as tree pruner in Portland Japanese Garden in .

The Tao of Physics

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The Tao of Physics was a 1975 book by physicist Fritjof Capra, published by Shambhala Publications of Berkeley, California. It was a bestseller in the United States, and has been published in 43 editions in 23 languages. The fourth edition in was published in 2000.

Origin

The following excerpt from ''The Tao of Physics'' summarizes Capra's motivation for writing this book.

The book grew out of an inspirational moment Capra had while under the influence
of psychedelics. Capra later discussed his ideas with Werner Heisenberg
in 1972, as he mentioned in the following interview excerpt:

I had several discussions with . I lived in England then , and I visited him several times in Munich and showed him the whole manuscript chapter by chapter. He was very interested and very open, and he told me something that I think is not known publicly because he never published it. He said that he was well aware of these parallels. While he was working on he went to India to lecture and was a guest of . He talked a lot with Tagore about Indian philosophy. Heisenberg told me that these talks had helped him a lot with his work in physics, because they showed him that all these new ideas in quantum physics were in fact not all that crazy. He realized there was, in fact, a whole culture that subscribed to very similar ideas. Heisenberg said that this was a great help for him. Niels Bohr had a similar experience when he went to China. – Fritjof Capra, interviewed by Renee Weber in the book ''The Holographic Paradigm''

As a result of those influences, Bohr adopted the yin yang symbol as part of his family coat of arms when he was knighted in 1947.

''The Tao of Physics'' was followed by other books of the same genre like ''The Hidden Connection'', ''The Turning Point'' and ''The Web of Life'' in which Capra extended the argument of how Eastern mysticism and todays scientific findings relate, and how Eastern mysticism might also have answers to some of the biggest scientific challenges of today.

As a trendsetting title, this book has the distinction of being the first "The Tao of" book in a parade of many on unrelated subjects by other authors .

Criticism

Physicist Jeremy Bernstein chastised ''Tao of Physics'':

At the heart of the matter is Mr. Capra's methodology—his use of what seem to me to be accidental similarities of language as if these were somehow evidence of deeply rooted connections.

Thus I agree with Capra when he writes, "Science does not need mysticism and mysticism does not need science but man needs both." What no one needs, in my opinion, is this superficial and profoundly misleading book.

Physicist Leon M. Lederman criticized both ''The Tao of Physics'' and Gary Zukav's ''The Dancing Wu Li Masters'' in his 1993 book ''The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?''

Starting with reasonable descriptions of quantum physics, he constructs elaborate extensions, totally bereft of the understanding of how carefully experiment and theory are woven together and how much blood, sweat, and tears go into each painful advance.

Editions

*''The Tao of Physics'', Fritof Capra, Shambala, 1975
**Shambala, 2nd edition 1983: ISBN 0-394-71612-4 Bantam reprint 1985: ISBN 0-553-26379-X
**Shambhala, 3rd edition 1991: ISBN 0-87773-594-8
**Shambhala, 4th edition 2000: ISBN 1-57062-519-0
**Audio Renaissance, 1990 audio cassette tape: ISBN 1-55927-089-6
**Audio Renaissance, 2004 audio compact disc ISBN 1-55927-999-0

The Northern Celestial Masters

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The Northern Celestial Masters type of the Way of the Celestial Master Daoist movement existed in the north of China during the early Middle Ages. The Northern Celestial Masters were a continuation of the Way of the Celestial Masters as it had been practiced in Sichuan province by Zhang Lu and his followers. After the community was forced to relocate in 215 CE, a group of Celestial Masters established themselves in Northern China. Kou Qianzhi, from a family who followed the Celestial Master, brought a new version of Celestial Master Daoism to the Northern Wei. The Northern Wei government embraced his form of Daoism and established it as the state religion, thereby creating a new Daoist theocracy that lasted until 450 CE. The arrival of Buddhism had great influence on the Northern Celestial Masters, bringing monasticism and influencing the diet of practitioners. Art produced in areas dominated by the Northern Celestial Masters also began to show Buddhist influence. When the theocracy collapsed, many Daoists fled to Louguan, which quickly became an important religious center. The Northern Celestial Masters survived as a distinct school at Louguan until the late 7th century CE, when they became integrated into the wider Daoist movement.

History

Northern Wei

Kou Qianzhi was a member of Celestial Master family that came from an area near Chang'an. Inspired by the burgeoning Daoist movement in Southern China, Kou retreated to Mount Song in Henan to receive inspiration. On the mountain, as described by the text ''The History of the Wei Dynasty'', he was visited twice by Laozi. In his first visit in 415, Laozi revealed to Kou a text known as the ''Laojun Yinsong Jiejing'' . This text contained precepts designed for a new religious community. In 423, a messenger of Laozi came and offered Kou a new text called the ''Lutu Zhenjing'' , which is now lost, and appointed him as the new Celestial Master.

In 424, Kou took these texts with him to the Wei court. There, he was welcomed by and garnered the support of Cui Hao, the prime minister. Even tough Cui Hao was a Confucianist, he greatly admired Kou and was immediately drawn to him. Cui also appreciated Kou's mathematical skills and hoped that he might help him improve his own longevity techniques. They also shared a dream of a 'purified society,' a land where peace and justice prevailed. Kou's 'New Code' was promulgated throughout the realm, and a large altar was built near the capital where 120 Daoist practitioners performed rites and prayers daily. Cui gained a great deal of power in the court, and in 444 began to purge the Buddhist clergy. This led to a major in 446. In 448, Kou Qianzhi was 'released' from his body, and Cui lost his greatest supporter at the court. Shortly ofter Kou's death, Cui had a national history of Wei dynasty containing unflattering portraits of its rulers carved in stone. This so enraged the emperor, that he had Cui executed in 450. After Cui's execution, the Daoist community was forced to flee, with many of them settling at the Daoist center of Louguan.

Louguan

By the late 470s, Daoists fleeing from the Northern Wei court had transformed Louguan into an important religious center. According to legend, Louguan used to be the home of Yin Xi, the first recipient of the ''Dao de jing''. At this time, the center's buildings were greatly expanded, and many Daoist scriptures were collected, including materials from the Lingbao and Shangqing schools. During the 7th century, the school had a prominent role in a series of debates that examined whether Buddhism or Daoism would be better suited to bring stability to the realm. The first debate surrounded Fuyi, a scholar and Daoist who proposed that Buddhism be abolished in China. Naturally, the Buddhists were not happy with his suggestions and countered his arguments in several treatises. The second debate concerned Lu Zhongqing, a friend of Fu Yi, who wrote about Buddhism's inferiority to Daoism. The emperors were in support of the Daoists, and in 637 issued an edict that secured the precedence of Daoism over Buddhism. This edict remained in place until 674, when Empress Wu Zetian came to power. At the same time, Louguan also served as a refuge for Daoists fleeing the persecution of Emperor Wu of the Liang dynasty to the south. The final Northern Celestial Master, Yin Wencao arrived at Louguan in 636 and later achieved the favor of the . After Yin's death in 688, Louguan remained an important place of Daoist learning, but ceased to be considered part of a distinct school.

Texts

The most important text from the Northern Wei period of the Northern Celestial Masters is the ''Laojun Yinsong Jiejing'' . This text was revealed to Kou Qianzhi in 415, and is now mostly lost apart from a few fragments. The surviving text contains thirty-six precepts that outline rules which a Daoist had to abide by. The behavioral rules outlined proper public conduct and what to do in case of sickness. There were also guidelines describing how banquets were to be set up, as well ritual instructions concerning funeral rites, immortality practice and petitions.

One of the most important text's from the school's Louguan period is called the ''Xishengjing'' . This text describes Laozi's emigration to India and the transmission of the ''Daode Jing'' to Yin Xi. However, the text is not really a narrative, but uses the stories as a framework to describe how an adept should live his life. The text describes how an adept can make use of the Dao that is inherent in the world, outlines meditation techniques, and discusses the results of living a sagely life and what happens after death.

Beliefs

The Northern Celestial Master variety of Daoism was both similar and different from Zhang Lu's earlier form. Unlike prior incarnations of the Celestial Masters, which supported as a means of achieving immortality, Kou's text urged that the sexual arts be purged from the religion. In addition, he also states that religion must be purged of the imposition of religious taxes on the faithful and the inheritance of religious titles. In the Northern Celestial Masters, Laozi became closely linked with the , who was claimed to be a student of Laozi. There were also very specific dietary requirements that had to be followed, as well as other rules, many of which were influenced by Buddhism. The Northern Celestial Masters were also the first Daoists to practice a form of monasticism, another idea that came from Buddhism. Kou also condemned messianic movements, and called for texts such as the ''Daodejing'' to be copied and recited. Those people who were good in life, would gain immortality in a new age, whereas those who were bad would be reborn as insects or animals.

Some similarities between earlier Celestial Master Daoism include the role of Laozi. Laozi was viewed as the personification of the Dao, who existed for eternity and created the world. He was believed to be the creator of the universe and came to earth intermittently to bring forth sacred scriptures, including the ''Daode Jing'' and ''Xisheng Jing''. Moreover, Laozi continued to appear periodically and bring forth new scriptures to both Kou Qianzhi and adherents at Louguan, surrounded by a celestial entourage and announced by a celestial envoy. Laozi was also extremely closely linked with the Buddha, and in certain sources, even became the Buddha or announced Yinxi as the Buddha.

Practices

The Northern Celestial Masters followed certain regular, communal rites. One of these communal rites involved formal banquets. These feasts could last as long as seven days. In order to purify themselves for feasts, members had to abstain from eating meat, garlic, green onions, ginger, leeks and onions. A banquet consisted of three courses – wine, rice and a vegetarian meal. Ritual activity during feasts and other activities usually involved a series of bows and prostrations as well as the burning of incense. Banquets were also held when someone died. During these banquets, attendees would perform rituals aimed at remitting the sins of the deceased.

While monasticism had existed in Chinese Buddhism, the Northern Celestial Masters were one of the first Daoist groups to practice it. Kou lived a monastic lifestyle on , known today for being the location of the Shaolin Monastery. Monasticism developed further during the Louguan phase of the Northern Celestial Masters due to this influence of Buddhism. During this period, a clear distinction developed between lay and monastic followers in Daoism. The ordination, precepts and way in which monks sought salvation were all influenced by Buddhism.

Art

Many art objects were produced in Northern China during the time of the Northern Celestial Masters. These objects were closely modeled on Buddhist designs. The image of the god , would be carved on the front side of a stone stele, with inscriptions on the back or side of the carving. The inscriptions were usually prayers to the dead, a wish for the happiness of family members or wishes for political peace. The iconography and contents of the inscriptions show that a close relationship between Daoism and Buddhism existed in the Northern Wei state. This relationship is especially evident in some four-sided stele that had carvings of both Laozi on two sides and the Buddha on the other two.

Taoist sexual practices

2008-09-22T20:21:00.007-07:00

Taoist sexual practices literally "Joining Energy" or "The Joining of the Essences", is the way some practised sex. Practitioners believed that by performing these sexual arts, one could stay in good health, and eventually, with some other spiritual practices, attain immortality.

History

Some Taoist sects during Han Dynasty performed sexual intercourses as a spiritual practice, called "HeQi" . The first sexual texts that survive today are those found at the Mawangdui tombs. While Taoism had not yet fully evolved as a philosophy at this time, these texts shared some remarkable similarities with later Tang dynasty texts, such as the Ishinpō. The sexual arts arguably reached their peak between the end of the Han dynasty and the end of the Tang dynasty. After 1000 CE, Confucian puritanism became stronger and stronger, so that by the advent of the Qing dynasty, sex was a taboo topic in public life. These Confucians alleged that the separation of sexes in most social activities existed two thousand years ago, and suppressed the sexual arts. Because of the taboo surrounding sex, there was much censoring done during the Qing in literature, and the sexual arts disappeared in public life. As a result, some of the texts survived only in Japan, and most scholars had no idea that such a different concept of sex existed in early China.

Ancient and medieval practices

Qi and Jing

The basis of all Taoist thinking is that qi is part of everything that exists. It is related to another energetic substance contained in the human body known as , and once all this has been expended, you will die. Jing could be lost from the body in a variety of ways, most notably the bodily fluids. Taoists would use practices to stimulate/increase and conserve their bodily fluids to great extents, and some reportedly recycled and composted their own fecal matter . The fluid that contained the most Jing was male semen. Therefore the Taoists believed that men should decrease the frequency or totally avoid ejaculation in order to conserve their life essence.

Male control of ejaculation

Many Taoist practitioners link the loss of ejaculatory fluids to the loss of vital life force: where excessive fluid loss results in premature aging, disease, and general fatigue. While some Taoists contend that one should never ejaculate, others provide a specific formula to determine the maximum amount of regular ejaculations in order to maintain health. The general idea is to limit the loss of fluids as much as possible to the level of your desired practice. As these sexual practices were passed down over the centuries, some practitioners have given less importance to the limiting of ejaculation. Nevertheless, the "retention of the semen" is one of the foundational tenets of Daoist sexual practice.

There are different methods to control ejaculation prescribed by the Taoists. In order to avoid ejaculation, the man could do one of two things. He could pull out immediately before orgasm, a method which Joseph Needham termed "coitus conservatus". The second method involved the man applying pressure on an area between the scrotum and the anus, and cause a retrograde ejaculation into the bladder. While it is now known that this method causes a retrograde ejaculation, the Taoists believed that the semen traveled up into the head and "nourished the brain." Needham called this method "coitus thesauratus". This method is referred to by some Taoist scholars as "The Million Dollar Point" , regarding it as either a cheap lesson for income or a backup method, believing that it somehow lessened the loss of "jing" from a full ejaculation. Another method involves the Taoist to train himself to separate the impulses of ejaculation and orgasmic contraction . By separating these impulses, at the point of orgasm, the man can halt penetration but remain inside his partner, and forcibly clench his pelvic floor , while simultainiously adopting a meditation like "intention" that these Taoists believe redirect not the physical sperm, but the life energy it contains up the back and to the center of the brain. This way the man will still have orgasm, but will not ejaculate, and most importantly will not lose his erection. This formula prescribes the man to climb a "ladder" of escalating orgasms in conjunction with the meditation like "intention", in order to cultivate and store massive amounts of "jing". If performed successfully the male should have no stagnating pain in the testes, and should have no semen in his urine, as well as the health benefits expected by practitioners. Those that practice this method believe that it is one of the keys to immortality.

Jing

Another important concept of "The Joining of the Essences" was that the union of a man and a woman would result in the creation of , a type of sexual energy. When in the act of lovemaking, jing would form, and the man could transform some of this jing into qi, and replenish his lifeforce. By having as much sex as possible, men had the opportunity to transform more and more jing, and as a result would see many health benefits.

Yin/Yang

The concept of is important in Taoism, and consequently also holds special importance in sex. Yang usually referred to the male gender, whereas Yin could refer to the female gender. Man and Woman were the equivalent of heaven and earth, but became disconnected. Therefore while heaven and earth are eternal, man and woman suffer a premature death. Every interaction between Yin and Yang had significance. Because of this significance, every position and action in lovemaking had importance. Taoist texts described a large number of special sexual positions that served to cure or prevent illness.

Significance of woman

For Taoists, sex was not just about pleasing the man. The woman also had to be stimulated and pleased in order to benefit from the act of sex. Sex could only happen if both partners desired it. If sex were performed in this manner, the woman would create more jing, and the man could more easily absorb the jing to increase his own qi. Women were also given a prominent place in the Ishinpō, with the tutor being a woman. One of the reasons women had a great deal of strength in the act of sex was that they walked away undiminished from the act. The woman had the power to bring forth life, and did not have to worry about ejaculation or refractory period.

Yet, women were oftentimes still given a position of inferiority in sexual practice. Many of the texts discuss sex from a male point of view, and avoid discussing how sex could benefit women. Men were encouraged to not limit themselves to one woman, and were advised to have sex only with a woman who was beautiful and had not had children. While the man had to please the woman sexually, she was still just an object. At numerous points during the Ishinpō, the woman is referred to as the "enemy." This was because part of the act of intercourse was an assumption by the male of dominance of the woman's sexual prowess. In later sexual texts from the Ming, women had lost all semblance of being human and were referred to as the "other," "crucible" or "stove." The importance of pleasing the woman also diminished in later texts.

Women were also considered to be a means for men to extend men's lives. Many of the ancient texts were dedicated explanation of how a man could use sex to extend his own life. But, his life was extended only through the absorption of the woman's vital energies . Taoists called the act of sex “The battle of stealing and strengthening.” These sexual methods could be correlated with Daoist military methods. Instead of storming the gates, the battle was a series of feints and maneuvers that would sap the enemy's resistance.

When and where to have sex

Another text, ''Health Benefits of the Bedchamber'', indicates that certain times were better for intercourse than others. A person had to avoid having intercourse on quarter or full moons and on days when there were great winds, rain, fog, cold or heat, thunder, lightning, darkness over heaven and earth, solar and lunar eclipses, rainbows and earthquakes. Having intercourse at these times would harm a man's spirit and would cause women to become ill. Children conceived at these times would be mad, stupid, perverse or foolish; mute, deaf, crippled or blind; unfilial and violent.

Also important was selecting the right day for intercourse if a person desired children. After the woman's period, the first, third or fifth days were the best. If on these days the man ejaculated after midnight, the child would likely be male. If a female child was desired, the man needed to ejaculate on the second, fourth or sixth days after the cessation of the woman's period.

The location of sex was also important. People had to avoid the glare of the sun, moon or stars, the interior of shrines, proximity to Buddhist temples, wells, stoves and privies, and the vicinity of graves or coffins.

If these suggestions were followed the family's offspring would be good, wise and virtuous. If they were not followed, the offspring would be evil and the family would eventually die off.

Immortality

All of these various precepts about sex served to help people attain immortality. According to Ge Hong, a 4th century Daoist alchemist, "those seeking immortality must perfect the absolute essentials. These consist of treasuring the jing, circulating the qi and consuming the great medicine." The sexual arts concerned the first precept, treasuring the jing. This is partially because treasuring the jing involved sending it up into the brain. In order to send the jing into the brain, the male had to refrain from ejaculation during sex. According to Daoists, if this was done, the semen would travel up the spine and nourish the brain instead of leaving the body. A man also had to have sex frequently; any abstention would result in yin and yang not interacting. If a person performed sex in the correct manner, he could eventually achieve immortality. Ge Hong also states, however, that performing the sexual arts only to achieve immortality was folly. Indeed, the sexual arts had to be practiced alongside alchemy to attain immortality.

Contemporary texts

*. ''Science and Civilization in China,'' 5:2. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1983.
*. ''The Tao of Love and Sex''. Plume, 1977.
*. ''The Sexual Life of Ancient China: A Preliminary Survey of Chinese Sex and Society from ca. 1500 B.C. till 1644 A.D.'' Leiden: Brill, 1961.
*Wile, Douglas. ''The Art of the Bedchamber: The Chinese Sexual Yoga Classics including Women's Solo Meditation Texts''. Albany: State University of New York, 1992.
*. ''Taoist Bedroom Secrets,'' Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus Press, 2002.
*Hsi Lai. ''The Sexual Teachings of the White Tigress: Secrets of the Female Taoist Masters''. Destiny Books, 2001.
*Wik, Mieke and Stephan. ''Beyond Tantra: Healing through Taoist Sacred Sex''. Findhorn Press, 2005.

Classical texts

* ''Health Benefits of the Bedchamber''
* ''Ishinpō''

Taoist diet

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While there are many different historical and modern schools of Taoism, with different teachings on the subject, it is safe to say that many Taoists regard their diet as extremely important to their physical, mental and spiritual health in one way or another, especially where the amount of qi in the food is concerned.

History

Early Taoist diets were very different from present-day ones. While present-day Taoist diets call for eating lots of grains, ancient diets called for the eating of no grains at all. This was because early Taoists believed the rotting of the grains in the intestines attracted demonic creatures known as the 'three worms.' These demons loved eating decaying matter in the intestines in the hope that they could kill the person and devour his corpse. Some Taoists advocated eliminating many foods from their diet. This position might have resulted from a mythological vision of an early "golden age" where humanity did not need to eat at all. An early Taoist text, the Taipingjing, suggests that early people who were living completely "as they are" would not need food, but instead would live only by absorbing the cosmic qi of Yin and Yang. This ancient state has since fallen away, however, which is why the Celestial Master of the Taipingjing says that food is now one of two absolute essentials for human existence.

Present Day

Basic Guidelines

A Taoist diet could focus on:

Increase intake of the following:

*Whole grains and products made with them
*Vegetables
*Fruit
*Seeds and s
*Tofu and soy
*Herbs
* and tea
*A balance of all different types of meats

Decrease intake of the following:

*Refined products
*Artificial additives/preservatives of any kind
*Rock salt
*Deep fried foods
*Alcohol, tobacco, caffeine

Everyday Meals

For regular eating Taoists believe in eating a frugal diet that is based primarily on cereals. Meals are served in order of seniority, with the elders being served first, and the youngest last. Every three, five, ten or fifteen days, some families will also observe a periodic vegetarian feast.

Festivals

The regular diet is enhanced by the frequency of festivals which take place at least every ten to fifteen days. Each festival was associated with a certain kind of food. For example, the New Year’s festival’s special food is rice cake. During the Dragon Boat festival, it is steamed dumplings and glutinous rice packed in bamboo leaves, and during the Mid-Autumn Festival the special food is mooncakes. These festivals also give Taoists the opportunity to eat far more than their diet usually proscribes. Rich food such as meat and wine is also a part of these festivals.

Herbs

Some Taoists practice herbalism in their diets. Taoists believe that using different herbs in their food can help increase the positive energy in their bodies, and that by mixing two herbs with opposite effects they can decrease the negative energy and increase the positive energy .

Taoism in Vietnam

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Taoism is believed to have been introduced into Vietnam during the Chinese Han Dynasty period . It became one of the main religious faiths of the Vietnamese people. Under L? Dynasty King , the examination for the recruitment of officials consisted of essays on the "Three Religions" . Under the succeeding dynasties, Taoism has become a source of inspiration for Vietnamese poets and writers. Taoism also influenced the establishment of the Cao Dai religion in Vietnam.

Taoism in Korea

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Taoism was introduced to Korea from China during the period, and remains as a minor but significant element of Korean thought. Although Taoism did not dominate over Buddhism or Confucianism, it permeated all strata of the Korean populace, integrating with its native animism as well as Buddhist and Confucian institutions, temples, and ceremonies.

Background

Broadly speaking, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism infused native Totemism and Shamanism from the earliest centuries of the Common Era, but dominated official thought during Unified Silla and Goryeo dynasties, replaced by during the Joseon Dynasty.

There is very little writing explicitly on Taoism prior to the 20th century, because it never grew into an autonomous religion or philosophy in Korea. Until recently, Taoism in Korea received little attention from scholars, usually only described as a "romantic influence" or "literary theme" within other contexts.

Taoism's effects have been limited because of a lack of an institutional or political base, rejected by Confucian and Buddhist elites. Some modern scholars, however, are calling for a more critical reading of Confucianized histories, study of alternative sources, and a broader definition of Taoism, to find more extensive presence of Korean Taoist ritual practices and positive valuations.

Three Kingdoms period

Goguryeo

Taoism first arrived in Korea in 624. Emperor , the founder of China's Tang Dynasty, sent a Taoist preacher and literature, Laozi and Zhuangzi, to the Goguryeo kingdom. These were eagerly welcomed by the Goguryeo's king and his minister Yeon Gaesomun. Buddhist temples were eventually transformed to Taoist temples. However, this first enthusiasm lasted for only 30 years. Taoist symbols are found in Goguryeo tomb murals near Kangso, P'yongan-do.

Baekje

In Baekje, Taoism was mentioned in some treatises in passing, and did not take hold as in the other Korean kingdoms.

Silla

Silla, having received Lao-tzu's Tao Te Ching in 738 from the Tang emperor, left the most substantial legacy of Taoism. Silla scholars went to China to study Taoism, and Lao-tzu was tested in civil service examinations. Sinseon Sasang, which was relatively widespread in Silla, had its roots in folk beliefs and practices, but it was also influenced by Korean Taoism.

Silla Taoism concentrated on the practice and training of one's mind or self discipline. Its most distinctive mark can be found in the Hwarang, an elite armed force noted for its disciplined composure, simplicity, relaxation and harmony, every one a component of philosophical Taoism.

Goryeo

Taoism enjoyed its greatest popularity during the Goryeo Dynasty, especially in the court and the ruling class. Taoist court rituals were introduced into Korea from Song dynasty China, especially under King . The object of worship in these rituals included most of the major and minor deities of the Taoist pantheon, but certain deities such as Samgye and T'aeil seem to have been the most popular.

By the mid period of the Goryeo Dynasty]], Buddhism dominated Korea, subsuming other religions and philosopies, including Taoism.

Joseon

The state religion under the Joseon Dynasty can be described as Neo-Confucianism, although not popular among the common people. At least at the start of the dynasty, Taoist literature was quite popular among groups of the intelligentsia. These writings on Taoism were predominantly from a Confucian perspective. However, there was a growing opposition from the main Confucian faction against Taoism, and Taoism began to be perceived as "heretical". Subsequently, the presence of Taoism shrank noticeably, and during the 1592 , Taoism was systematically abolished.

In the 16th to 18th centuries, Taoist flourished, as literati, monks, private scholars , and even women, studied and practiced Taoist meditation and inner alchemy and produced hagiographic and anecdotal accounts of their Taoist contemporaries and forebears. The most important of these accounts known to date are four anecdotal biographies of immortals in the collected writings of Heo Gyun , the Ch'onghakjip by Cho Yojok .

While these were written to encourage Koreans to practice inner alchemy for the sake of immortality , they also re-envision and broaden the meaning of Korean religious history by reiterating nativist and folk traditions about the role of Korean mountain recluses and earthbound immortals in the maintenance and protection of Korean society.

Modern presence

Since the late Joseon Dynasty, Taoism has been marginalized not only by the Korean Royal Court, Confucians, and Buddhists but also by society as a whole. Despite such a historical framework, today only a handful of Taoists exist throughout Korea.

Taoism has been absorbed into the traditional Korean vision of the world, a world view in which shamanistic, Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist elements are so intimately intertwined that often only a scholar can distinguish which is which.

Evidence of Taoist revival can be seen in Tanjeon Hoheup and Tonghak. Even if the term "Taoism" is not used, the terms, techniques, and goals are clearly Taoist. The Taoist mark of Chinese characters ''su'' and ''bok'' decorate many everyday articles, from spoons to pillow cases, even today. Many place names, especially related to mountains, bear strong Taoist influence.

The Taoist symbol Taeguk is featured in the flag of South Korea.

Noted scholars

*Yi Gyu-gyeong was a Silhak scholar wrote many articles on Taoism.

Zhengyi Dao

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Zhenyi Dao or the Way of Complete Orthodoxy is a Chinese Daoist movement that emerged during the Tang Dynasty as a transformation of the earlier Tianshi Dao movement. Like Tianshi Dao, the leader of Zhengyi Daoism was known as the Celestial Master.

History

By the beginning of the Tang Dynasty in 618, the term 'Celestial Master' had lost the potency it had in earlier movements such as the Five Pecks of Rice, and any prominent Daoist could be accorded the title. Emperor Xuanzong , canonized the first Celestial Master Zhang Daoling during his reign. This did not benefit the original territory of his followers in Sichuan, but rather benefited a temple in the Jiangnan area of Jiangxi province. This temple, located at , claimed to be the spot where Zhang Daoling had obtained the Tao, and where his descendants still lived. Recognized by the emperor as the legitimate descendants of Zhang Daoling, these new Celestial Masters established a new patriarchy at their base of Longhu Shan.

The importance of the Zhengyi school grew during the Song Dynasty, with the Celestial masters frequently receiving imperial appointments. In 1239, the Southern Song commanded the thirty-fifth Zhang Keda to the united Lingbao School, the Shangqing School and Zhengyi Dao. The new school was to retain the Zhengyi name and remain based at Longhu Shan. Shortly after the schools were united, Kubilai Khan conquered the Southern Song Dynasty to usher in the Yuan Dynasty. He accepted the claim that the Celestial Master of Longhu Shan was descended from Zhang Daoling and granted the school the right to control affairs relating to Daoism in the Jiangnan area. In 1304, as a result of Zhengyi Dao’s increased importance under the Mongols, all of the Daoist schools, with the exception of the Quanzhen School, were united under the banner of the Zhengyi School, with the thirty-eighth Celestial Master, Zhang Yucai as leader.

The foundation of the Ming dynasty in 1368 marked the beginning of a long decline in the power of the Zhengyi Daoism. The first emperor of the Ming the Hongwu Emperor suppressed the use of the title of 'Celestial Master' among the Zhengyi School, and the fiftieth Celestial Master Zhang Guoxiang had his title stripped by the Longqing Emperor . By the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty, relations between the court and the Celestial Masters came to an end. The school's activities became localized to regions in which the school was particularly important. Despite ending association with the court, the Celestial Master himself still retained a great deal of prestige and importance among Daoists throughout China. This prestige, which arose from the belief that he was descended from Zhang Daoling, was evident when the Celestial Master traveled and attracted crowds of people wherever he went.

Beliefs

Unlike prior incarnations of the Celestial Masters, like the school based at , the Zhengyi Daoists did not venerate Laozi as a god. Instead, he was viewed as the ancestor of the school's teaching.

Practices

During the Tang Dynasty, the primary activity of Zhengyi Daoists was to sell protective talismans. Local cults developed around the sale of these talismans, and around guilds and associations patronized by members of the church.

One of the fundamental practices of the school was conferring registers upon people entering Daoism. A register was a way to allow that the Daoist tradition passed one to future generations by ensuring those who received them had an adequate knowledge of the school's teachings. Registers also had the names of deities written on them who could be called upon by thee bearer to assist in times of need. Once one received a register, they were considered to be part of the priesthood. There were different grades of registers for laypeople with differing levels of religious knowledge.

The Celestial Masters adopted the Thunder Rites during the last two decades of the Northern Song period. The Five thunders variety appeared earlier and was linked with the Celestial Masters.

Rituals

There are two main types of rituals performed by the Zhengyi Daoists the ''jiao'' and ''zhai'' rituals. The ''zhai'' ritual is performed as a way to gain benefits through purification and abstinence, and usually takes place immediately before the ''jiao'' ritual. In performing a ritual, an adherent must first recite a litany of repentance, then notify the deities of the merits gained though repentance by submitting a document to heaven. Upon completion of the ''zhai'' ritual, the ''jiao'' ritual begins in which deities are given offerings and thanked. The ''jiao'' ritual is usually performed over a three day period. Much of the ritual is performed by priests in a temple, but can also involve religious processions through the city, musical performances and a mass offering in front of the temple.

Texts

The Zhengyi Daoists were particularly notable for their work in gathering Daoist texts and assembling them into collections. Zhang Yuchu received an imperial commission in 1406 gather texts, in particular those produced during the reign of the Hongwu Emperor . With these texts, Zhang compiled a reference work known as the ''Zhengtong Daozang'' , which was an overview of current Daoists texts and practices. Zhang Guoxiang , compiled a similar reference work in 1607 known as the Wanli Xu Daozang .

Yuanshi Tianzun

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Yuanshi Tianzun , the ''Celestial Venerable of the Primordial Beginning'' or the ''Primeval Lord of Heaven'', is one of the highest deities of religious Taoism. He is one of the Three Pure Ones , and is also known as the ''Jade Pure One'' . He resides in the Heaven of Jade Purity. It is believed that he came into being at the beginning of the universe as a result of the merging of pure breaths. He then created Heaven and Earth.

In Taoist Mythology

He once was the supreme administrator of Heaven but later entrusted that task to his assistant ''Yuhuang'', the Jade Emperor. Yuhuang took over the administrative duties of Yuanshi Tianzun, and became the overseer of both Heaven and Earth. At the beginning of each age, Yuanshi Tianzun transports the ''Lingpao ching'' , the Scriptures of the Magic Jewel, to his students , who in turn instruct mankind in the teachings of the Tao.

Yuanshi Tianzun is said to be without beginning and the most supreme of all beings. He is in fact, a representation of the principle of all being. From him all things arose. He is eternal, limitless, and without form.

Plot in ''Fengshen Yanyi''

In ''Fengshen Yanyi'', Yuanshi Tianzun is a superior man who has maintained his will for generations. He would be known as the master of Mount Kunlun, in which he had many disciples -- one of such being Jiang Ziya. In time, Yuanshi Tianzun would tell Jiang that it would be time to head down to the world in order to attain a level of wealth and honor. Due to the fact that Jiang Ziya was destined to assist in the creation of the new Zhou Dynasty - as like - Yuanshi Tianzun would stay loyal to heaven's will and effectively send Jiang away to his new destiny. After telling Jiang what to do through a poetic format, Yuanshi Tianzun says his final words of farewell to his fellow student.

Yellow Turban Rebellion

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The Yellow Turban Rebellion, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a 184 peasant rebellion against Emperor Ling of Han. It is named for the color of the scarves which the rebels wore around their heads. The rebels were associated with secret Taiping Taoist societies and the rebellion marked an important point in the history of Taoism. The rebellion is the opening event in the ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''.

Causes

A major cause of the Yellow Turban Rebellion was an agrarian crisis, in which famine forced many farmers and former military settlers in the north to seek employment in the south, where large landowners took advantage of the labor surplus and amassed large fortunes. The situation was further aggravated by smaller floods along the lower course of the Yellow River. Further pressure was added on the peasants by high taxes imposed on them in order to build fortifications along the Silk Road and garrisons against foreign infiltrations and invasions. In this situation, landowners and landless peasants formed armed bands , setting the stage for an armed conflict.

At the same time, the Han was weakening internally. The power of the landowners had been a problem for a long time already , but in the run-up to the Yellow Turban Rebellion, the court eunuchs in particular gained considerably in influence on the emperor, which they abused to enrich themselves. Ten of the most powerful eunuchs formed a group known as '''' and the emperor referred to one of them as his "foster father". Consequently, the government was widely regarded as corrupt and incapable and against this backdrop, the famines and floods were seen as an indication that a decadent emperor had lost his mandate of heaven.

Because of its plan for a new beginning, the Yellow Turban sect of Zhang Jiao was to prove the most dangerous enemy of Han. In preparation for his revolt, Zhang sent disciples out to gain support and organize followers throughout North China. They were encouraged in their recruitment by local political discontent, and by droughts and plague among the people. The rebels even had allies in the imperial court, and they were able to
make their preparations while government officials were either ignorant of their intentions or intimidated by their power. Nearly all of the religious practices of the sect were communal activities .

Military action

The Yellow Turban forces were concentrated in three areas. The group led by Zhang Jiao and his two brothers gained their support from the region just north of the Yellow River, near Zhang Jiao's home territory of Julu and his base in Wei commandery. A second major rising took place in Guangyang and Zhuo commanderies in You province, in the neighborhood of present-day Beijing. The third center of rebellion was in the three commanderies of Yingchuan, Runan and Nanyang. This force had evidently been intended to co-operate with the traitors inside Luoyang in the attempt to seize the capital, but even without that support, the rebels in this region were a major threat.

In the first weeks of the uprising, the government of Emperor Ling was chiefly concerned with finding and executing the traitors at the capital and with the immediate defense of the city. In the third month, when these preparations had been made, three armies were sent out to deal with the rebellion. One was sent east against Zhang Jiao. The other two, commanded by Huangfu Song and by Zhu Jun, were sent against the rebels in Yingchuan, Runan and Nanyang. Zhu Jun recommended Sun Jian's appointment to call up troops and join his forces. With such widespread rebellion to deal with, the imperial commanders were anxious to gain any reinforcements that they could, and the territory of the lower Yangzi, not directly affected by Zhang Jiao's movement, was close enough to be a convenient source of recruits for the imperial army. Sun Jian collected his troops, and he marched to join Zhu Jun's army with a thousand men under his command. The fighting against the Yellow Turbans of Yingchuan, Runan and Nanyang was frequently fierce, with varying success.

In the third month of 184, soon after the rebellion had broken out, the Yellow Turban Zhang Mancheng defeated and killed the Grand Administrator of Nanyang, and in the fourth month, at the beginning of summer, the imperial army under Zhu Jun was defeated by the Yellow Turban Bo Cai in Yingchuan, while the Grand Administrator of Runan was defeated by another force of rebels.

To oppose the Yellow Turbans, Huangfu Song, , and Zhu Jun formed a subjugation force to go on the offensive. looked for people to be in the volunteer forces. Liu Bei one of the people to answer the call, rescued General Dong Zhuo from the enemy. In AD 184, the Yellow Turban Rebellion started in the provinces Shandong and Henan. At this time the rebel force consisted of approximately 360,000 fighters. He Jin, the half-brother of , was placed in charge of putting the rebellion down.

In the middle of the year 184; however, the tide turned. In the fifth month Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun combined their armies to defeat Bo Cai, and in the sixth month they destroyed the Yellow Turbans of Runan in a Battle at Xihua in Henan. Then the two generals went separate ways, Huangfu Song to join in the attack on the rebels north of the Yellow River, and Zhu Jun to deal with the Yellow Turbans of Nanyang. By this time, a new Grand Administrator had defeated Zhang Mancheng and killed him. In that campaign; however, the Yellow Turbans were able to capture the capital of the commandery, Wan city, and they took refuge there.

For the next several months, the core of the campaign was the fighting in and around Wan city, until the place was finally stormed and the defenders massacred in the eleventh month, midwinter at the beginning of 185. The capture of Wan city was the last great defeat of the Yellow Turbans. Their forces in the North China plain had been destroyed in the field by the imperial armies during the summer, their strongholds were besieged and captured, and the three Zhang brothers were dead. The remaining, scattered rebels were pursued by commandery and county forces in various mopping-up operations, and in the twelfth month of the Chinese year, mid-February of 185, the government issued a proclamation of celebration, changing the reign title to the slogan "Pacification Achieved."

The rebels were defeated in February AD 185, but only two months later, the rebellion broke out again. In AD 185, it spread to the Taihang Mountains on the western border of and in 186 it reached Shaanxi, Hebei, and Liaoning, in 188 it reached Shanxi. In the same year, a second independent uprising took place in Sichuan, but it wasn't coordinated with the Yellow Turban Rebellion in other parts of the country.

In December 188 and early in 189, the rebels threatened Luoyang, which was the capital city of the Han Dynasty at the time. As a reaction, imperial troops were sent both west and south to confront the rebels. Although the southern detachment was able to score a victory, its commander, Lu Zhi, was arrested for not keeping on the offensive against the rebels. In 192, Cao Cao was able to defeat the rebels again after they marched into Yanzhou, who eventually ceased to pose a military challenge by the year 205. Cao Cao defeated Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang, effectively swaying the momentum to the imperial forces. Zhang Jiao died of illness, and a year later the rebellion was crushed.

Aftermath and impact

The Han armies had gained a glorious victory, and it was a remarkable achievement that they removed so quickly the threat of Zhang Jiao's rebellion. The cost, however, was very high. Over wide areas the offices of the government had been destroyed, magistrates had been killed, and whole districts were cut off from the writ of the central government. The enemy had been slaughtered in the hundreds and thousands, many innocent people had been left homeless or destitute by the wars, and the economy and society over great parts of this most populous region of the empire were left in ruins and without resources. Unrest remained and bandits appeared in every district; the government, in no position to put down all the lesser disturbances, was forced to patch up the situation as best it could. A long period of consolidation was needed to restore some measure of peace and prosperity, but that breathing space was not given.

While the Yellow Turban rebellion was eventually defeated, the military leaders and local administrators gained self-governing powers in the process. This hastened the collapse of the Han Dynasty in AD 220. After Emperor Ling of Han died in AD 189, a power struggle between He Jin and the eunuchs ensued in which He Jin was assassinated on September 22 189. He Jin's chief ally Yuan Shao retaliated by setting the emperor's palace on fire and . Finally, the warlord Dong Zhuo was able to gain control over the underage heir to the throne which he used as a legitimation for occupying the capital, which was ransacked on the occasion. Because of his cruelty, Dong Zhuo was murdered in 192, setting the stage for Cao Cao's rise to power.

Despite the negativity portrayed in the ''Romance of Three Kingdoms'', being a large scale rebellion against corrupted authority, several peasant uprisings in China were patterned after the Yellow Turban Rebellion or claimed to be its spiritual successors.

Modern references

The ''Yellow Scarves Rebellion'' is the opening event in the ''"Romance of the Three Kingdoms"''. Two Koei video game series, '''' and ''Dynasty Warriors'', are based on the ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' and also contain the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Earlier version of the video game used the name ''Yellow Scarves Rebellion'', but in later versions this was changed to ''Yellow Turban Rebellion''.

Xingyiquan

2008-09-22T20:20:00.003-07:00

Xingyiquan is one of the major "internal" Chinese martial arts. Xingyiquan translates approximately to "Form/Intention Boxing", or "Shape/Will Boxing", and is characterised by aggressive, seemingly linear movements and explosive power. There is no single organisational body governing the teaching of the art, and several variant styles exist.

A Xingyiquan fighter uses coordinated movements to generate bursts of power intended to overwhelm the opponent, simultaneously attacking and defending. Forms vary from school to school, but include barehanded sequences and versions of the same sequences with a variety of weapons. These sequences are based upon the movements and fighting behaviour of a variety of animals. The training methods allow the student to progress through increasing difficulty in form sequences, timing and fighting strategy.

Origins

Legend

Although the exact origin of Xingyiquan is uncertain, the earliest written records of Xingyiquan can be traced to the 18th century to Ma Xueli of Henan Province and Dai Longbang of Shanxi Province. Legend, however, credits the invention of Xingyiquan to the renowned Song Dynasty general Yue Fei. According to the book ''Henan Orthodox Xingyi Quan'' written by ''Pei Xirong'' and ''Li Ying’ang'' , Xingyi Master ''Dai Longbang'' "于乾隆十五年为“六合拳”作序云：“岳飞当童子时，受业于周侗师，精通枪法，以枪为拳，立法以教将佐，名曰意拳，神妙莫测，盖从古未有之技也。"

"''...wrote the Preface to Six Harmonies Boxing in the 15th reign year of the Qianlong Emperor . Inside it says, '...when was a child, he received special instructions from . Extremely skilled in spearfighting, he used the spear to create fist techniques and established a skill called Yi Quan'' .'' Meticulous and unfathomable, this technique far outstripped ancient ones."

Throughout the , and Dynasties few had his art, one of them being ''Ji Gong'' . After Yue Fei's death, the art was lost for half a millennium. Then, during the and Qing Dynasties in Shaanxi Province's Zhongnan Mountains, Yue Fei's boxing manual was discovered by Ji Longfeng of neighbouring Shanxi Province.

History

Yang Jwing-Ming argues that aspects of Xingyiquan are identifiable as far back as the Liang Dynasty at the Shaolin Temple. Yue Fei, therefore, did not strictly invent Xingyiquan, but synthesised and perfected existing Shaolin principles into his own style of gongfu which he popularised during his military service. Because this theory holds that Yue Fei based his style on existing Shaolin kungfu techniques, some consider Bodhidharma to be Xingyiquan's originator. Nonetheless, according to Yang, Yue Fei is usually identified as the creator because of his considerable understanding of the art and his cultural status as a Chinese war hero.

Other martial artists and historians of Chinese martial arts, such as Miller, , and Kennedy, hold that this story is largely legendary; while xingyiquan may well have evolved from military spear techniques, there is no period evidence to support that Yue Fei was involved or that the art dates to the Song dynasty. These authors point out that the works describing Yue Fei's role or attributed to him long postdate his life , and that it was common practice in China to attribute new works to a famous or legendary personage, rather than take credit for one's self. One source claims that the author of the "preface" is unknown, since no name is written on the manuscript. Most practitioners just assume it was written by Dai Longbang. Some martial researchers believe that it was actually written in Shanxi during the final years of the 19th century. In addition, historical memoirs and scholarly research papers only mention teaching Yue archery and not spear play. Yue historically learned spear play from Chen Guang , who was hired by the boy’s paternal grandfather, Yao Daweng .

With the late Ming-era and Ji Longfeng, evidence for the art's history grows firmer. Ji Longfeng's contributions to the art are described in the ''Ji Clan Chronicles'' . Like the ''Preface'', the ''Chronicles'' describes Xingyiquan as a martial art based on the combat principles of the spear. The ''Chronicles'', however, attributes this stylistic influence to Ji himself, who was known as the "Divine Spear" for his extraordinary skill with the weapon.

The master who taught Xingyiquan to Ma Xueli is conventionally identified as Ji Longfeng himself. However, the traditions of the Ma family itself say only that Xueli learned from a wandering master whose name is unknown. Ji Longfeng referred to his art as Liu He, The Six Harmonies.

The ''Preface'' identifies Cao Ji Wu as a student of Ji Longfeng and the master who taught Xingyiquan to Dai Longbang.
However, other sources identify Dai's teacher variously as Li Zheng or Niu Xixian.

Xingyiquan remained fairly obscure until Li Luoneng learned the art from the Dai family in the 19th century.
It was Li Luoneng and his successors—which include Guo Yunshen, Li Cunyi, Zhang Zhaodong, Sun Lutang, and Shang Yunxiang—who would popularise Xingyiquan across Northern China. Sun Lutang exchanged knowledge with Fu Chen Sung, who subsequently took this branch of h'sing yi ch'uan to southern China.

Recent history

A simplified version of Xingyiquan was taught to Chinese infantry during the Second Sino-Japanese War for close quarters combat. This included armed techniques such as bayonet and sabre drills alongside unarmed techniques.

Xingyiquan forms have been adapted to fit the needs of modern practitioners of the competitive sport of . The style is relatively rare in competitions because all wushu practitioners must compete in several mandatory events, which make Xingyi a secondary priority in wushu circles.

Disputed history

Ancient Chinese texts, the source of Xingyiquan knowledge, often contain characters whose meanings are obscure or have disappeared completely from the language. Specialised terms which describe historically-specific concepts are commonly interpreted with regards for their closest, modern linguistic equivalent. The results can be problematic, producing translations which are linguistically correct but inconsistent within a fighting or martial context.

Jargon from other martial arts seems to have entered the Xingyiquan vocabulary through cross-training. For example, some schools refer to a training method of "Xingyi " - a term more commonly in use in training Taijiquan - which may be called by other schools "Five Elements Fighting"

The recognised founder of Baguazhang, Dong Hai Chuan, was reputed to have fought Guo Yunshen with neither able to defeat the other - though it is possible that they were training together. It would have been controversial at the time for Dong Hai Chuan to have studied under Guo Yunshen, since Dong Hai Chuan was the older of the two. The most neutral viewpoint would be to say that they trained ''together'', which may explain the stylistic similarities between Baguazhang and the Xingyiquan Monkey. argues that this encounter never took place and that Guo and Dong had little contact with each other. Frantzis argues that a Xingyiquan-Baguazhang exchange was more likely to have occurred in Tianjin c. 1900 where Xingyi masters Li Cunyi and Zhang Zhaodong, Bagua master Cheng Tinghua, and four other Xingyi and Bagua teachers lived together .
It is stated in Sun Lutang's autobiography that the legendary fight between Guo Yunshen and Dong Hai Chuan never happened. The book states that the truth of the matter is that Guo Yunshen actually fought one of his older Xingyi brothers and lost. Sun Lutang was a student of both Guo Yunshen and Cheng Tinghua so this stance on the subject seems to be one of the most accurate.
On another note there are claims that the fight did happen from very credible masters that have knowledge of specific, original forms both empty handed and weapons that were invented by Dong Hai Chuan himself. They claim that the two masters agreed to a draw, realizing that both arts were equally on par with each other and always had mutual respect for the other. They claim that the friendship developed two new arts BaguaXingyi and Xingyibagua. Both arts were a fusion of the two with more emphasis on the art that is stated first in the name. A person had to decide which art he had more interest in and resonated in them more. Xingyibagua for the student more interested in Xingyi and BaguaXingyi for the student more interested in Pa Kua .

Treating the story of Dong Hai Chuan and Guo Yunshen as allegory, however, reveals a common training protocol among xingyiquan and baguazhang practitioners. Often, because baguazhang requires significantly more time for a practitioner's skill to mature, it is acceptable to learn xingyiquan first or simultaneously. Such a practitioner develops a tactical vocabulary that is more readily apparent than the core baguazhang movements.

The founder of Yiquan, Wang Xiangzhai studied under Guo Yunshen, and similarities in techniques between these arts can be seen. The primary standing postures of Yiquan trains separately what xingyiquan santishi trains simultaneously.

Characteristics and principles

Xingyiquan features aggressive shocking attacks and direct footwork.
The linear nature of Xingyiquan hints at both the military origins and the influence of spear technique alluded to in its mythology.
Despite its hard, angular appearance, cultivating or qi is essential to achieving power in Xingyiquan.

The goal of the Xingyiquan fighter is to reach the opponent quickly and drive powerfully through them in a single burst — the analogy with spear fighting is useful here.
This is achieved by coordinating one's body as a single unit and the intense focusing of one's qi.

Efficiency and economy of movement are the qualities of a Xingyiquan fighter and its direct fighting philosophy advocates simultaneous attack and defence. There are few kicks except for extremely low foot kicks and some mid-level kicks, and techniques are prized for their deadliness rather than aesthetic value.
Xingyiquan favours a high stance called Sāntǐshì , literally "three bodies power," referring to how the stance holds the head, torso and feet along the same vertical plane.
A common saying of Xingyiquan is that "the hands do not leave the heart and the elbows do not leave the ribs." Another characteristic common to many styles of XingYi is a stance called "Dragon Body". This is a forward stance similar to a bow stance with a straight line from the head to the heel of the back foot and the front foot perpendicular to the ground. This is not so much a separate stance or technique in itself as a principle of movement to provide power to techniques.

The use of the Santishi as the main stance and training method originated from Li Luoneng's branch of Xingyi. Early branches such as Dai family style do not use Santi as the primary stance nor as a training method.

Overview

Five Element forms

Xingyiquan uses to metaphorically represent five different states of combat.
Also called the "Five Fists" or "Five Phases," the Five Elements are related to Taoist cosmology although the names do not literally correspond to the cosmological terms.

Xingyiquan practitioners use the Five Elements as an interpretative framework for reacting and responding to attacks.
This follows the Five Element theory, a general combat formula which assumes at least three outcomes of a fight; the constructive, the neutral, and the destructive.
Xingyiquan students train to react to and execute specific techniques in such a way that a desirable cycle will form based on the constructive, neutral and destructive interactions of Five Element theory.
Where to aim, where to hit and with what technique—and how those motions should work defensively—is determined by what point of which cycle they see themselves in.

Each of the elements has variant applications that allow it to be used to defend against all of the elements , so any set sequences are entirely arbitrary, though the destructive cycle is often taught to beginners as it is easier to visualise and consists of easier applications.
Some schools will teach the Five Elements before the Ten Animals because they are easier and shorter to learn.

It is perhaps unfortunate that the names used for the elements are used as fundamental names for applications of energy or ''jìn'' , since it can be confusing to describe the "heng jin contained within pi quan".
The ''jìn'' referred to by the five element names are not the only ones, there are many others.

Animal forms

Xingyiquan is based on twelve distinct animal forms .
Present in all regional and family styles, these emulate the techniques and tactics of the corresponding animal rather than just their physical movements. Many schools of Xingyiquan have only small number of movements for each animal, though some teach extended sequences of movements. Once the individual animal forms are taught, a student is often taught an animal linking form which connects all the taught animals together in a sequence. Some styles have longer, or multiple forms for individual animals, such Eight Tiger Forms ''Huxing bashi''.

Branches

Xingyiquan has three main developmental branches:
*Shanxi
*Hebei
*Henan

However, the identification of three separate branches is tenuous because of the extensive cross-training that occurred across their lineages. This suggests that the branches did not evolve in isolation, thus diluting any major differences between them.

Schools of the Shanxi branch have a narrower stance, lighter footwork and tend to be more evasive. Schools of the Hebei branch emphasise powerful fist and palm strikes, with slightly different evasive footwork. Schools of the Henan branch are typically the most aggressive of the three .

The Henan branch is known as the Muslim branch because it was handed down within the Muslim community in Luoyang to which its founder, Ma Xueli, belonged. Henan branch is sometimes referred to by practitioners as Xinyi LiuHe Quan instead of simply Xingyiquan This may be attributed to the fact that the Muslim community of China was historically a very closed culture in order to protect themselves as a minority, thus retaining the older addition to the name of Xingyi. LiuHe means "Six Harmonies" and refers to the six harmonies of the body that contribute to correct posture. This is not to be confused with the separate internal art Liuhebafa.

Both the Shanxi and Hebei branches use a Twelve Animal system with Five Elements while the Henan branch uses Ten Animals. Depending on the lineage, it may or may not use Five Elements. Due to the historical complexity and vagueness of the lineages, it is uncertain which branch would constitute the "authentic" Xingyiquan.

Weapons

Traditionally, Xingyiquan is an armed art, students would train initially with the spear, progressing to shorter weapons and eventually empty-handed fighting. Xingyiquan emphasises a close relationship between the movements of armed/unarmed techniques. This technical overlap aims to produce greater learning efficiency.

Common weapons:
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*Long
*Short Staff
*Needles
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*. This weapon was supposedly created by Ji Longfeng and became the special weapon of the style. Its alternate name is "Binding Flower Waist Carry".
Weapon diversity is great, the idea being that an experienced Xingyi fighter would be able to pick up almost any weapon irrespective of its exact length, weight and shape.

Famous Figures

Since the validity of lineages are often controversial, this list is not intended to represent any lineage. Names are presented in alphabetical order using pinyin romanisation.

Important Texts

A variety of texts have survived throughout the years, often called "Classics", "Songs" or "Theories".
*Classic of Unification
*Classic of Fighting
*Classic of Stepping
*Classic of Six Harmonies

Bibliography/Further reading

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#Goldgewicht, Tadzio.
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Published works

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Translated Works

These may be available in the original Chinese.
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*Xing Yi Lianhuan Quan, Li Cun Yi
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*The Xingyi Boxing Manual: Hebei Style's Five Principles and Seven Words, Jin Yunting

English Works

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Articles

*Szymanski, Jarek.
*Fish, Ken

Discussion Sites

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Videos

Xuanxuan Shangren

2008-09-22T20:20:00.001-07:00

Xuanxuan Shangren was the first supra-being incubated from Tao, according to an introduction by Lao Tsu in a Taoist guidance book called ''The Feast of the Immortal Peaches'' . The same genesis in the Chinese creation myth was also explained in a second guidance book called Tiantang Yiuji 天堂遊記 whereby it was described that out of the primodial infinite ''Nothingness'' or came Taiji , which then split into the binary yin and yang or ''two aspects'' , yin and yang splitting into the ''four realms'' and from which begets , and from which every beings were created. The following texts were traceable to the legendary emperor Fuxi as well as Tao Te Ching:

*無極生有極, 有極是太極,
*太極生兩儀, 即陰陽;
*兩儀生四象: 即少陰、太陰、少陽、太陽,
*四象演八卦，八八六十四卦

Xuanxuan Shangren is also sometimes called Hongjun Laozu reputedly the teacher of the Three Pure Ones. He was the first personified ''being'' from creation but not a known historical person who attained purification and made it to heaven.

Xiang'er

2008-09-22T20:19:00.007-07:00

The Xiang’er is a commentary to the '''' that is best known for being one of the earliest surviving texts from the Way of the Celestial Master variant of Daoism. The meaning of the title Xiang’er is debated, but can be translated as meaning ‘thinking of you.’

History

The Xiang’er was most likely written in between 190 and 220 CE, a time when the Celestial Masters controlled a theocratic state in Sichuan. Early sources indicate that the text was written by Zhang Lu, the third Celestial Master and grandson to Zhang Daoling.

The text available to us today was discovered in the Buddhist caves at Dunhuang in the early 20th century and was part of the trove that traveled to London along with Aurel Stein. However, the Xiang’er that survives only comments upon half of the Daode Jing. Presumably there was also a second part of the Xiang’er, but it has now been lost. The Xiang’er text found at Dunhuang likely dates from the 5th or 6th centuries.

Precepts

The Xiang’er reveals a great deal about early Celestial Master thought and practice. In particular, the text offers advice to individuals and to society as a whole.

In terms of individual advice, the Xiang’er, like the rest of Daoism, discusses ways in which a person could gain immortality. According to the Xiang’er, the body was inhabited by spirits that survive in the presence of qi. In order to attain immortality, a person had to preserve and nourish these internal spirits. Presumably these spirits could be nurtured through meditation, but the Xiang’er offers very little guidance on what type of meditation one should do. The Xiang’er also looks down upon Daoist sexual practices, and urges its readers not to practice them.

While aimed at a wide audience, the Xiang’er also contains advice that could be used for rulers. These rulers were encouraged to remake society on the model of the Dao. Such a society would not be based on desire for wealth and fame, but on the fear and the respect of heaven. Hopefully when people learn to be respectful and fearful towards heaven, they will act morally.

Xian (Taoism)

2008-09-22T20:19:00.005-07:00

Xian

The "''Li Sao''" , the most famous ''Chuci'' poem, is usually interpreted as describing ecstatic flights and trance techniques of Chinese shamans. The above three poems are variations describing Daoist ''xian''.

Some other ''Chuci'' poems refer to immortals with synonyms of ''xian''. For instance, "''Shou zhi''" , uses ''zhenren'' , which Wang Yi's commentary glosses as ''zhen xianren'' .
I visited Fu Yue, bestriding a dragon,
Joined in marriage with the Weaving Maiden,
Lifted up Heaven's Net to capture evil,
Drew the Bow of Heaven to shoot at wickedness,
Followed the Immortals fluttering through the sky,
Ate of the Primal Essence to prolong my life.

''Liezi''

The ''Liezi'' , which Louis Komjathy says "was probably compiled in the 3rd century CE ", uses ''xian'' four times, always in the compound ''xiansheng'' .

Nearly half of Chapter 2 comes from the ''Zhuangzi'', including this recounting of the above fable about Mount Gushe .
The Ku-ye mountains stand on a chain of islands where the Yellow River enters the sea. Upon the mountains there lives a Divine Man, who inhales the wind and drinks the dew, and does not eat the five grains. His mind is like a bottomless spring, his body is like a virgin's. He knows neither intimacy nor love, yet immortals and sages serve him as ministers. He inspires no awe, he is never angry, yet the eager and diligent act as his messengers. He is without kindness and bounty, but others have enough by themselves; he does not store and save, but he himself never lacks. The Yin and Yang are always in tune, the sun and moon always shine, the four seasons are always regular, wind and rain are always temperate, breeding is always timely, the harvest is always rich, and there are no plagues to ravage the land, no early deaths to afflict men, animals have no diseases, and ghosts have no uncanny echoes.

Chapter 5 uses ''xiansheng'' three times in a conversation set between legendary rulers of the Shang Dynasty and Ji of the Xia Dynasty.
T'ang asked again: 'Are there large things and small, long and short, similar and different?'
—'To the East of the Gulf of Chih-li, who knows how many thousands and millions of miles, there is a deep ravine, a valley truly without bottom; and its bottomless underneath is named "The Entry to the Void". The waters of the eight corners and the nine regions, the stream of the Milky Way, all pour into it, but it neither shrinks nor grows. Within it there are five mountains, called Tai-yü, Yüan-chiao, Fang-hu, Ying-chou and P'eng-Iai. These mountains are thirty thousand miles high, and as many miles round; the tablelands on their summits extend for nine thousand miles. It is seventy thousand miles from one mountain to the next, but they are considered close neighbours. The towers and terraces upon them are all gold and jade, the beasts and birds are all unsullied white; trees of pearl and garnet always grow densely, flowering and bearing fruit which is always luscious, and those who eat of it never grow old and die. The men who dwell there are all of the race of immortal sages, who fly, too many to be counted, to and from one mountain to another in a day and a night. Yet the bases of the five mountains used to rest on nothing; they were always rising and falling, going and returning, with the ebb and flow of the tide, and never for a moment stood firm. The immortals found this troublesome, and complained about it to God. God was afraid that they would drift to the far West and he would lose the home of his sages. So he commanded Yü-ch'iang to make fifteen giant turtles carry the five mountains on their lifted heads, taking turns in three watches, each sixty thousand years long; and for the first time the mountains stood firm and did not move.
'But there was a giant from the kingdom of the Dragon Earl, who came to the place of the five mountains in no more than a few strides. In one throw he hooked six of the turtles in a bunch, hurried back to his country carrying them together on his back, and scorched their bones to tell fortunes by the cracks. Thereupon two of the mountains, Tai-yü and Yüan-chiao, drifted to the far North and sank in the great sea; the immortals who were carried away numbered many millions. God was very angry, and reduced by degrees the size of the Dragon Earl's kingdom and the height of his subjects. At the time of Fu-hsi and Shen-nung, the people of this country were still several hundred feet high.'

Penglai Mountain became the most famous of these five mythical peaks where the elixir of life supposedly grew, and is known as Horai in Japanese legends. The first emperor Qin Shi Huang sent his court alchemist Xu Fu on expeditions to find these plants of immortality, but he never returned .

Holmes Welch analyzed the beginnings of Daoism, sometime around the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, from four separate streams: philosophical Daoism , a "hygiene school" that cultivated longevity through breathing exercises and yoga, Chinese alchemy and philosophy, and those who sought Penglai and elixirs of "immortality". This is what he concludes about ''xian''.
It is my own opinion, therefore, that though the word ''hsien'', or Immortal, is used by Chuang Tzu and Lieh Tzu, and though they attributed to their idealized individual the magic powers that were attributed to the ''hsien'' in later times, nonetheless the ''hsien'' ideal was something they did not believe in — either that it was possible or that it was good. The magic powers are allegories and hyperboles for the ''natural'' powers that come from identification with Tao. Spiritualized Man, P'eng-lai, and the rest are features of a ''genre'' which is meant to entertain, disturb, and exalt us, not to be taken as literal hagiography. Then and later, the philosophical Taoists were distinguished from all other schools of Taoism by their rejection of the pursuit of immortality. As we shall see, their books came to be adopted as scriptural authority by those who did practice magic and seek to become immortal. But it was their misunderstanding of philosophical Taoism that was the reason they adopted it.

''Shenxian zhuan''

The ''Shenxian zhuan'' is a hagiography of ''xian''. Although it was traditionally attributed to Ge Hong , Komjathy says, "The received versions of the text contain some 100-odd hagiographies, most of which date from 6th-8th centuries at the earliest."

According to the ''Shenxian zhuan'', there are four schools of immortality:

– Breath control and meditation. Those who belong to this school can

"...blow on water and it will flow against its own current for several paces; blow on fire, and it will be extinguished; blow at tigers or wolves, and they will crouch down and not be able to move; blow at serpents, and they will coil up and be unable to flee. If someone is wounded by a weapon, blow on the wound, and the bleeding will stop. If you hear of someone who has suffered a poisonous insect bite, even if you are not in his presence, you can, from a distance, blow and say in incantation over your own hand , and the person will at once be healed even if more than a hundred li away. And if you yourself are struck by a sudden illness, you have merely to swallow pneumas in three series of nine, and you will immediately recover.
But the most essential thing is fetal breathing. Those who obtain fetal breathing become able to breathe without using their nose or mouth, as if in the womb, and this is the culmination of the way ."

Fàn – Ingestion of herbal compounds and abstention from the ''Sān Shī Fàn'' —Meats and grains. According to the book ''To Live As Long As Heaven and Earth: Ge Hong’s Traditions of Divine Transcendents'', the importance of 'grain avoidance' was told in a story by Ge Hong:
"During the reign of , hunters in the Zhongnan Mountains saw a person who wore no clothes, his body covered with black hair. Upon seeing this person, the hunters wanted to pursue and capture him, but the person leapt over gullies and valleys as if in flight, and so could not be overtaken. [But after being surrounded and captured, it was discovered this person was a 200 plus year old woman, who had once been a concubine of . When he had surrendered to the 'invaders of the east', she fled into the mountains where she learned to subside on 'the resin and nuts of pines' from an old man. Afterwards, this diet 'enabled to feel neither hunger nor thirst; in winter was not cold, in summer was not hot.']
The hunters took the woman back in. They offered her grain to eat. When she first smelled the stink of grain, she vomited, and only after several days could she tolerate it. After little more than two years of this , her body hair fell out; she turned old and died. Had she not been caught by men, she would have become a transcendent."

Fángzhōng Zhī Shù – . According to a discourse between the Yellow Emperor and the immortaless ''Sùnǚ'' , one of the three daughters of Hsi Wang Mu,
“The sexual behaviors between a man and woman are identical to how the universe itself came into creation. Like Heaven and Earth, the male and female share a parallel relationship in attaining an immortal existence. They both must learn how to engage and develop their natural sexual instincts and behaviors; otherwise the only result is decay and traumatic discord of their physical lives. However, if they engage in the utmost joys of sensuality and apply the principles of yin and yang to their sexual activity, their health, vigor, and joy of love will bear them the fruits of longevity and immortality.

The ''White Tigress Manual'', a treatise on female sexual yoga, states,
“A female can completely restore her youthfulness and attain immortality if she refrains from allowing just one or two men in her life from stealing and destroying her essence, which will only serve in aging her at a rapid rate and bring about an early death. However, if she can acquire the sexual essence of a thousand males through absorption, she will acquire the great benefits of youthfulness and immortality.”

Dān – .

''Baopuzi''

The 4th century CE ''Baopuzi'' , which was written by Ge Hong, gives some highly detailed descriptions of ''xian''.

The text lists three classes of immortals:

Tiānxiān - The highest level.

Dìxiān – The middle level.

Shījiě xiān - The lowest level.This is considered the lowest form of immortality since a person must first “fake” their own death by substituting a bewitched object like a bamboo pole, sword, or a shoe for their corpse or slipping a type of Death certificate into the coffin of a newly departed paternal grandfather, thus having their name and "allotted life span" deleted from the ledgers kept by the ''Sīmìng'' . and folktales abound of people who seemingly die in one province, but are seen alive in another. Mortals who choose this route must cut off all ties with family and friends, move to a distant province, and enact the ''Ling bao tai xuan yin sheng zhi fu'' to protect themselves from heavenly retribution.

However, this is not a true form of immortality. For each misdeed a person commits, the Director of allotted life spans subtracts days and sometimes years from their allotted life span. This method allows a person to live out the entirety of their allotted lifespan and avoid the agents of death. But the body still has to be transformed into an immortal one, hence the phrase ''Xiānsǐ hòutuō''

Sometimes the ''Shījiě'' are employed by heaven to act as celestial peace keepers. Therefore, they have no need for hiding from retribution since they are empowered by heaven to perform their duties. There are three levels of heavenly ''Shījiě'':

Dìxià zhǔ – Are in charge of keeping the peace within the . They are eligible for promotion to earthbound immortality after 280 years of faithful service.

Dìshàng zhǔzhě - Are given magic talismans which prolong their lives and allow them to heal the sick and exorcize demons and evil spirits from the earth. This level was ''not'' eligible for promotion to earthbound immortality.

Zhìdì jūn - A heavenly decree ordered them to "disperse all subordinate junior demons, whether high or low , that have cause afflictions and injury owing to blows or offenses against the Motion of the Year, the Original Destiny, Great Year, the Kings of the Soil or the establishing or breaking influences of the chronograms of the tome. Annihilate them all." This level was also ''not'' eligible for promotion to immortality.

These titles were usually given to humans who had either not proven themselves worthy of or were not fated to become immortals. One such famous agent was Fei Changfang, who was eventually murdered by evil spirits because he lost his book of magic talismans. However, some immortals are written to have used this method in order to escape execution.

Ge Hong wrote in his book ''The Master Who Embraces Simplicity'',
The Dark Girl and Plain Girl compared sexual activity as the intermingling of fire and water , claiming that water and fire can kill people but can also regenerate their life, depending on whether or not they know the correct methods of sexual activity according to their nature. These arts are based on the theory that the more females a man copulates with, the greater benefit he will derive from the act. Men who are ignorant of this art, copulating with only one or two females during their life, will only suffice to bring about their untimely and early death.

''Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji''

The ''Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji'' is associated with Zhongli Quan and Lü Dongbin , two of the legendary Eight Immortals. It is part of the so-called “Zhong-Lü” textual tradition of internal alchemy . Komjathy describes it as, "Probably dating from the late Tang , the text is in question-and-answer format, containing a dialogue between Lü and his teacher Zhongli on aspects of alchemical terminology and methods."

The ''Zhong Lü Chuan Dao Ji'' lists five classes of immortals:

Guǐxiān – A person who cultivates too much energy. These immortals are likened to Vampires because they drain the life essence of the living, much like the . Ghost immortals do not leave the realm of ghosts.

Rénxiān – Humans have an equal balance of yin and yang energies, so they have the potential of becoming either a ghost or immortal. Although they continue to hunger and thirst and require clothing and shelter like a normal human, these immortals do not suffer from aging or sickness. Human immortals do not leave the realm of humans. There are many sub-classes of human immortals, as discussed above under .

Dìxiān – When the yin is transformed into the pure yang, a true immortal body will emerge that does not need food, drink, clothing or shelter and is not effected by hot or cold temperatures. Earth immortals do not leave the realm of earth. These immortals are forced to stay on earth until they shed their human form.

Shénxiān – The immortal body of the earthbound class will eventually change into vapor through further practice. They have supernatural powers and can take on the shape of any object. These immortals must remain on earth acquiring merit by teaching mankind about the Tao. Spirit immortals do not leave the realm of spirits. Once enough merit is accumulated, they are called to heaven by a celestial decree.

Tiānxiān – Spirit immortals who are summoned to heaven are given the minor office of water realm judge. Over time, they are promoted to oversee the earth realm and finally become administrators of the celestial realm. These immortals have the power to travel back and forth between the earthly and celestial realms.

Wu wei

2008-09-22T20:19:00.003-07:00

Wu wei is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act. Another perspective to this is that "Wu Wei" means natural action - as planets revolve around the sun, they "do" this revolving, but without "doing" it; or as trees grow, they "do", but without "doing". Thus knowing when to act is not knowledge in the sense that one would think "''now''" is the right time to do "''this''", but rather just doing it, doing the natural thing.

''Wu'' may be translated as ''not have'' or ''without''; ''Wei'' may be translated as ''do, act, serve as, govern or effort''. The literal meaning of Wu Wei is "without action" and is often included in the paradox ''wei wu wei'': "action without action" or "effortless doing". The practice of ''wu wei'' and the efficacy of ''wei wu wei'' are fundamental tenets in and have been mostly emphasized by the . The aim of ''wu wei'' is to achieve a state of perfect equilibrium, or alignment with the Tao, and, as a result, obtain an irresistible form of "soft and invisible" power.

There is another less commonly referenced sense of ''wu wei''; "action that does not involve struggle or excessive effort". In this instance, Wu means "without" and Wei means "effort". The concept of "effortless action" is a part of Internal martial arts such as Tai chi, Baguazhang and Xing Yi.

In Zen Calligraphy, Wu Wei has been represented as a .

Origins

In the traditional Chinese understanding of governance, a prince has only to sit at the right place, facing south, with a prince's traditional attributes, and his country will be well governed. In Lun Yu II.1., Confucius compares a virtuous prince to the North Pole in which he finds himself: he does not move and everything turns around him. There are magical justifications behind this idea of a power obtained by "inaction." It is the Chinese "correspondence", or "synchronicity" theory, where the macrocosm is reflected, or even duplicated, in microcosms. According to the theory, ordering the Emperor's palace ''is'' governing the country well: the palace is a homothetic reproduction of the country. Chinese history is full of examples of natural disasters cured by means such as the opening of a new door in the walls of the .

Some philosophers, for example Wang Chong, have questioned this theory. A more pragmatic view may interpret this as a means to restrain the prince from abuse of power, enjoining him to 'do' as little as possible.

In the original Taoist texts, ''wu wei'' is often associated with water and its yielding nature. Although water is soft and weak, it has the capacity to erode even solid stone and move mountains . Water is without will , though it may be understood to be opposing wood, stone, or any solid aggregated material that can be broken into pieces. Due to its nature and propensity, water may potentially fill any container, assume any shape; given the Water Cycle water may potentially go "anywhere", even into the minutest holes, both metaphorical and actual. Droplets of water, when falling as rain, gather in watersheds, flowing into and forming rivers of water, enjoining the proverbial sea: this is the nature of water. Furthermore, whilst always yielding downwards, water finds its own level in the 'dark valley' — where biological life is regenerated — analogous to the fecund reproductive organs.

Philosophy

Several chapters of the most important Taoist scripture, the Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi, allude to "diminishing doing" or "diminishing will" as the key aspect of the sage's success. Taoist philosophy recognizes that the Universe already works harmoniously according to its own ways; as a person exerts their will against or upon the world they disrupt the harmony that already exists. This is not to say that a person should not exert agency and will. Rather, it is ''how'' one acts in relation to the natural processes already extant. The ''how'', the Tao of intention and motivation, ''that'' is key.

Related translation from the ''Tao Te Ching'' by Priya Hemenway:

: 3
:''The Sage is occupied with the unspoken''
:''and acts without effort.''

:''Teaching without verbosity,''
:''producing without possessing,''
:''creating without regard to result,''
:''claiming nothing,''
:''the Sage has nothing to lose.''

Wu Wei has also been translated as "creative quietude," or the art of letting-be. This does not mean a dulling of the mind; rather, it is an activity undertaken to perceive the Tao within all things and to conform oneself to its "way."

One way of envisioning wu wei is through Laozi's writings on how a ruler should govern their kingdom. The advice that was given is that it is similar to frying a small fish . In other words, create general policies and direction, but do not micromanage. To do this well, you must understand the ways of your people and not go against the grain.

A sage is one who has complete understanding of nature of things thereby has no emotion.

Practice

As one diminishes doing — here 'doing' means those intentional actions taken to benefit us or actions taken to change the world from its natural state and evolution — one diminishes all those actions committed against the Tao, the already present natural harmony. As such one begins to cultivate Tao, becomes more in harmony with Tao, and, according to another great ancient Taoist philosopher Zhuangzi, attains a state of ''Ming'', or 'clear seeing'. This is very similar to more contemporary ideas about "choiceless awareness" and the clarity it brings by the philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti. It is in the state of ''Ming'' that the Taoist is in full harmony with Tao, and 'having arrived at this pointless point of non-action, there is nothing that is left undone.' It is upon achievement of this Chinese equivalent to 'enlightenment' that a sage begins to perform ''wei wu wei'', or 'action without action.' Thus the sage will be able to work in harmony with Tao to accomplish what is needed, and, working in perfect harmony with the Tao, leave no trace of having done it.

An example of active non-action using wu wei, would be to teach in such a way that no course of action is dictated to a student , so they assume that they have been taught nothing, that is, until their learnings have been integrated in their lived experience. As is said in the comicbook summarization Zen Speaks, "A good teacher teaches the student that they already know the answer."

The ultimate goal: harmony with the Tao

The goal for wu wei is to get out of your own way, so to speak. This is like when you are playing an instrument and if you start thinking about playing the instrument, then you will get in your own way and interfere with your own playing. It is aimless action, because if there was a goal that you need to aim at and hit, then you will develop anxiety about this goal. Zhuangzi made a point of this, where he writes about an archer who at first didn't have anything to aim at. When there was nothing to aim at, the archer was happy and content with his being. He was practicing wu wei. But, then he set up a target and "got in his own way." He was going against the Tao and the natural course of things by having to hit that goal.

A dramatic description of wu wei is found in chapter 2 of Zhuang Zi:
''A fully achieved person is like a spirit! The great marshes could be set on fire, but she wouldn't feel hot. The rivers in China could all freeze over, but she wouldn't feel cold. Thunder could suddenly echo through the mountains, wind could cause a tsunami in the ocean, but she wouldn't be startled. A person like that could ride through the sky on the floating clouds, straddle the sun and moon, and travel beyond the four seas. Neither death nor life can cause changes within her, and there's little reason for her to even consider benefit or harm.''

This passage is metaphorical. To a Taoist, things arise dependently. The soul and body go together, because if there were no soul, there would be no body and if there were no body, there would be no soul. All these arise dependently like this . A person who follows the principle of wu wei thus realizes how ridiculous it is to cling to good and to obsessively stay away from evil. By realizing how things arise dependently, a Taoist is able to accept the bad and is then able to have no goal to aim at. When Zhuangzi is saying a fully achieved person is like a spirit, he is saying that a fully achieved person has accepted the bad things in life and does not strive to get away from them and instead accepts them.

In the West

Benjamin Hoff in The Tao of Pooh suggests that "Wei" means monkey/claw, and translates "Wu Wei" as "No Monkeying Around".

William S. Burroughs talks about similar concepts in .

Alan Watts also has written much about Taoism and Wu wei.

Educational Videos

has videos describing Wu Wei.

Links

* Lasseiz-faire
* Simple living
* Taoism

Way of the Celestial Masters

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Tianshi Dao or Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 CE. At its height, the movement controlled a state in Sichuan.

History

In 142 CE Zhang Daoling announced that Laozi had appeared to him and commanded him to rid the world of decadence and establish a new state consisting only of the ‘chosen people.’ Zhang became the first Celestial Master, and began to spread his newly-founded movement throughout the province of Sichuan. The movement was initially called the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, because each person wishing to join was required to donate five pecks of rice. The movement spread rapidly, particularly under his son Zhang Heng and grandson Zhang Lu. Their rebellion against the Han dynasty is known as the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. After the success of the rebellion in 184, they founded the theocratic state of Zhang Han in the Hanzhong Valley of Sichuan, enjoying full independence.

In 215, Zhang Lu submitted to Cao Cao, the ruler of the Wei Kingdom, surrendering his state in exchange for gaining state religion status for Tianshi Daoism. Zhang was given a title and land, as were several other family members and generals. His daughter was married to Cao Cao’s son, Cao Yu. His followers were forced to resettle in other parts of China, with one group being sent to the Chang'an area, and another being sent to Luoyang. Zhang relocated to the Han court until the Han Dynasty changed to the . He then used his own popularity as a religious leader to lend legitimacy to the Wei, proclaiming that the Wei court had inherited divine authority from the Tao church, as well as from Confucian laws.

The collapse of the Wei Kingdom in 260 CE, along with the fall of Northern China to the Huns in 317, further scattered adherents to the Celestial Master. The Celestial Masters later reemerged in the 4th and 5th centuries as two distinct offshoots, the Northern and Southern Celestial Masters.

The Southern Celestial Masters

After the fall of Luoyang to non-Chinese invaders in 311, the remnants of the court fled to Jiankang and established a new state known as the dynasty. Among the court members who fled were members of the Celestial Masters. There is also evidence that after Zhang Lu’s submission to Cao Cao, numerous adherents fled south from Sichuan. These various followers of The Way of the Celestial Master coalesced to form a distinct form of Celestial Master Daoism known as the Southern Celestial Masters. The Southern Celestial Masters lasted as a distinct movement into the fifth century.

The Northern Celestial Masters

Kou Qianzhi, who was raised in a Celestial Master family, received two visions of Laozi in 415 and in 423. In 424, he brought the work that resulted from these visions to the court of the Northern Wei dynasty. The rulers put his works into practice, and Kou became the Celestial Master of the Daoist theocracy of the Northern Wei. After Kou died in 448, the prime minister, Cui Hao, became power hungry and began to insult the Wei rulers. Unhappy with his insubordination, the rulers had Cui executed in 450, and ended the Daoist theocracy.

The Celestial Masters today

During the Yuan Dynasty, the Zhengyi Dao School of Daoism claimed lineage to the Celestial Masters. They became one of the two leading schools of Daoism in China, along with . Zhengyi Daoists became common in the Jiangxi, Jiangsu, and Fujian provinces of China, as well as in Taiwan.

The Celestial Masters have survived into the 20th century. In 1949, after the communists gained power in the mainland, the remaining Celestial Masters fled to Taiwan, where they still live today.

Beliefs and practices

Each of the three different eras of the Celestial Masters had distinct beliefs. However, because the Southern and Northern Celestial Masters both descended directly from the initial movement founded by Zhang Daoling, there are many beliefs that are shared. A number of texts exist that give insight into early Celestial Master practice, in particular the ''Taiping Jing'' and the ''Xiang'er'' commentary to the Laozi.

The foundation of Daoist belief is that there is an energy source known as qi that pervades all things. The human body also contains qi, but it only has a limited amount of qi. Qi could be lost from the body through things such as sweating and ejaculation. The Celestial Masters shared these foundational Daoist beliefs, but modified them slightly.

One such change was that illness was caused by sin. This was because sin caused qi to leave the body. In order to cure any illness, repentance was a crucial factor in ensuring that the loss of qi could be staunched. Repentance could be accomplished by spending time in a 'Chamber of Silence,' and reflecting on one's sins, or by beating one's breasts and to heaven. Illness could also be cured in other ways as well, among them using medicinal herbs and by listening to ritual music. Eating very little was also of extreme importance, and an ideal diet would consist of no food at all, but only noncorporeal things such as air, which the person could absorb through meditation.

Sexual practices also differed significantly between Daojia , and Celestial Master Daoism. In both traditions, semen is considered the embodiment of qi. If someone ejaculated too often, their life would be shortened. While Daojia advocates not ejaculating during sex in order to 'nourish the brain,' the Celestial Masters frowned upon this, and advocated non-ejaculation simply as a way to avoid losing qi. In addition, the Celestial Masters thought that the Daojia method of stealing a woman's qi to replenish the man's own qi was completely wrong, and should not be practiced.

Organization

The region governed by the Celestial Masters was divided into 24 regions for both administrative and religious reasons. Each of these 24 regions were connected with one of the , one of the 24 periods of the year and with one of the 28 of the zodiac. Depending on their birth signs, each adherent belonged to one of these districts. Each of the 24 regions was administered by 24 officials, who had under their command 240 armies of spirits, composed of 2400 generals, 2400 officers and 240000 soldiers. This system of administration reflected a utopian system of governance described in the Zhouli.

Administration and religion were closely linked in the system of the Celestial Masters. Adherents were grouped by families, and each was attached to a district. Families and districts held copies of civil registers, of which the gods also held a copy. The registers were detailed records of the people, and recorded each person's civil status, and identity. Any changes to these registered had to accompanied by a monetary contribution known as a 'wage of faith.' Requests to the gods followed a bureaucratic model, and were drawn up according to specific administrative codes. The effectiveness of these requests depended upon the accuracy of the registers kept by the gods.

New members of the sect were divided into groups led by instructors. The neohpytes were instructed by a catechism similar to that found in the Xiang'er that was likely a type of proto-meditation that later became widespread in movements such as the Shangqing School of Daoism. These instructors handled religious and administrative duties, receiving taxes, and set up road-side inns for travelers. Each of the faithful was assigned a rank in the religious hierarchy according to merit. The highest were given the rank of master , and were presented with a register. The register allowed the master to command certain spirits.

Texts

One of the most important of the early Celestial Master texts is the Xiang'er commentary to the Laozi. This text gives insight into the Celestial Masters’ physiological beliefs, meditation practices and rituals. In addition, the commentary reinterprets the Laozi to have all humanity as its intended audience, instead of only a sage.

A later text written in 255 CE, known as the ''Commands and Admonitions for the Families of the Great Dao'' was composed to a divided Celestial Master community after the dispersal of the Sichuan population. While written in the persona of Zhang Lu, it is probable that this text was not written by him, as he had likely died by 255 CE.

Significance

The Celestial Masters were the first group of organized Daoists. Before their foundation, Daoism did not exist as an organized religion. Being the first organized religious Daoists, the Celestial Masters are the ancestors of subsequent Daoist movements such as the Shangqing and movements.

Village gods in Taoism

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In Taoism, the God of Village have developed from land worship. Before Gods of Towns dominated in China, land worship had a hierarchy of deities conforming strictly to social structure, in which the emperor, kings, dukes, officials and common people were allowed to worship only the land gods within their command; the highest land deity was the Earthly Queen of the Four Imperial Ones. Ranked lower than Town gods, the God of Village have been very popular among villagers as the grassroot deities since the 14th century during the Ming Dynasty. Some scholars speculate that this change came because of a royal edict, because it is reported that the first emperor of the Ming dynasty was born in a Village God shrine. The image of the Village God is that of a simply clothed, smiling, white-bearded man. His wife, the Grandma of the Village, looks like any old lady who lives next door.